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Food Security

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    Exploring the youth-agriculture nexus: implications on household food security and livelihoods = Ukubheka uxhumano phakathi kwentsha nezolimo: Imithelela yokutholakala kokudla nezindlela zokuziphilisa emindenini.
    (2023) Mukwedeya, Bright Takudzwa.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
    The youth-agriculture nexus in Africa is critical to food and nutrition security, employment and livelihoods at multiple scales through multiple pathways. The Zimbabwean government, like several other African governments enacted policies and interventions to harness this opportunity. Despite the government's efforts, getting youth attracted or interested in agriculture has been a challenge while success has been elusive. The information gaps characterising most of Africa's policy environment are contributing to the failure of most youth policies and interventions. Robust and compelling evidence on the intersection of youth and agriculture is lacking. It is against this background that the study explores the youth-agriculture nexus and its implications on household food security and livelihoods. The study's specific objectives include determining the factors affecting rural youth participation in agriculture; examining the factors influencing migration willingness and choice of destination; determining the factors affecting life satisfaction and lastly; examining the factors influencing livelihood choice and food security among youth. The study examines the youth-agriculture intersection from various disciplines, considering noncognitive, demographic, social and economic factors. This is because of the complex and multi-dimensional nature of the youth-agriculture nexus. A pre-tested structured questionnaire collected data from 200 youths across three districts of Mashonaland East Province in Zimbabwe. Various econometric techniques of discrete choice and descriptive statistics analysed the data. The rights to anonymity, informed consent, and confidentiality were upheld to make the study ethical. The descriptive statistics show that most of the youth were males, household heads, unemployed, married, looking for a job and have a secondary level of education. Also, the results show that most of the youth in the study were food insecure, dissatisfied with their lives and willing to engage in migration. The study sheds light on the importance of noncognitive factors (expectancy and subjective task value) in understanding the youth-agriculture nexus. The results reveal that expectancy, utility and intrinsic value and cost statistically significantly influences youth career decisions and life outcomes. It follows that youth with expectancy, intrinsic or utility value engage and spent more hours in agriculture. Further, youth with utility or intrinsic value have high life satisfaction compared to their counterparts without utility or intrinsic value. The study also reveals that traditional factors such as age, marital status, level of education, access to land, household size and employment status statistically significantly influence youth career decisions and life outcomes. The study concludes that both noncognitive and traditional factors are critical in understanding youth career decisions and life outcomes and combined can provide a holistic and better understanding of the youth-agriculture nexus. In line with the literature, the future of agriculture and food security in rural Zimbabwe is uncertain. The results reveal that most of the youth are leaving or losing interest in agriculture. In the study, over 70 percent of the youth expressed low interest in engaging in the sector in the coming years. Second, a relatively high number of youths were willing to migrate. The results show that 69 percent of the youth in the study were willing to engage in migration. Last, low life satisfaction was a general characteristic among the youth. Over 60 percent of the youth in the study expressed dissatisfaction with their lives. Further, the study reveals a shift in some youth narratives in agriculture. First, a significant number of youths in the study opted for non-agricultural livelihoods over agriculture. Second, international migration has accelerated in rural Zimbabwe. Thus, rural migration is no longer limited to internal migration as many youths opted to engage in international migration. With a shift in youth narratives and uncertainty in agriculture and food insecurity in rural Zimbabwe, the study recommends the integration of noncognitive factors in policy decisions. Further, the study suggests the adoption of an interdisciplinary approach to the design of youth policies and interventions in agriculture. Also, the study recommends the need to set up multi-stakeholder platforms in policy decisions, planning and investment. Last, policy priority should focus on closing the large disparities between urban and rural Zimbabwe in terms of social services such as education, credit and communication. Iqoqa. Uxhumano phakathi kwentsha nezolimo lumqoka ekuqinisekeni ukutholakala kokudla okunomsoco ekuziphiliseni kwemindeni emazingeni ahlukene ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezahlukene. Kodwa-ke, ubufakazi bukhombisa ukuthi intsha yasemakhaya ezwenikazi lase-Afrikha iphelelwa yithemba ngezolimo futhi ukuzibandakanya kwabo kulo mkhakha kwehla minyaka yonke. Lokhu kuletha izinselelo ngekusasa lezolimo, ukuqinisekisa ukutholakala kokudla kanye nezomnotho wasezindaweni ezisemakhaya. Kungenxa yalesi sizathu ukuthi lolu cwaningo lubheke uxhumano phakathi kwentsha nezolimo kanye nomthelela walo ekuqinikeseni ukutholakala kokudla nezindlela zokuziphilisa. Imininingo ikhiqizwe ngokuqoka intsha ngokungahleliwe kusetshenziswa uhlu lwemibuzo oluvivinyiwe. Imininingo ihlaziywe ngokusebenzisa izibalomidanti ezichazayo kanye nezisusela kokuthile. Ukuze ucwaningo lube nobulungiswa ababambiqhaza baqinisekiswa ngokugodlwa kwamagama abo, kwatholwa nemvume yokuzibandakanya ocwaningweni kanye nokugcinwa kwemininingo okuyimfihlo. Izibalomidanti ezichazayo zitshengisa ukuthi intsha eningi kulolu cwaningo ngabantu besilisa, abaninimizi, abangaqashiwe, abashadile, abafuna imisebenzi futhi banemfundo esezingeni eliphakame. Imiphumela itshengisa ukuthi izimo ezinomthelela ezinqumweni zentsha mayelana nomsebenzi kanye nemiphumela yempilo yayo ziphathelene nezenhlalo, ezomnotho, ezemvelo, ezengqondo kanye nezobuchwepheshe. Okunye futhi, imiphumela itshengisa ukuthi ikusasa lezomkhakha wezolimo kanye nokutholakala kokudla kuncikinciki ezindaweni zasemakhaya eZimbabwe. Intsha eningi isilahlekelwe yisasasa ngezolimo, izimisele ukufudukela kwamanye amazwe futhi ayigculisekile ngempilo yayo. Ucwaningo lubuye futhi lwaveza ukuthi kunenguquko ezilandisweni zentsha kwezolimo. Okokuqala, isibalo esikhulu sentsha ocwaningweni sikhethe izindlela zokuziphilisa ezingaphathelene nezolimo. Okwesibili, ufuduko lwasezindaweni zasemakhaya alusagcini nje njengofuduko lwangaphakathi kodwa intsha isikhetha ukufudukela nakwamanye amazwe. Ukuze kuqiniswe uxhumano phakathi kwentsha nezolimo, ucwaningo luphakamisa ukudidiyelwa kwezimo ezingaphathelene nengqondo ezinqumeni zenqubomgomo. Okunye futhi, ucwaningo luhlongoza ukuba kusetshenziswe indlelakubuka edidiyela imikhakha ehlukene uma kwenziwa izinqubomgomo zezolimo eziphathelene nentsha kanye nezinhlelo zokungenelela kwezolimo. Okokugcina, inqubomgomo kumele ihambise phambili ukuvala igebe phakathi kwemiphakathi yasemakhaya neyasemadolobheni eZimbabwe mayelana nezemfundo, ukukwazi ukukweletiswa, kanye nezokuxhumana.
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    The utilization of amaranthus leaf powder to supplement ujeqe (steamed bread) wheat flour for the alleviation of food and nutrition insecurity in Empangeni South Africa = Ukusetshenziswa kwembuya egayiwe ukuthaka ujeqe owenziwe ngofulawa ukunqanda ukwentuleka kokudla nezinto ezinomsoco eMpangeni, eNingizimu Afrikha.
    (2023) Olusanya, Ruth Nachamada.; Unathi, Kolanisi.; Ngobese, Nomali Ziphorah.; Mayashree, Chinsamy.
    Malnutrition persists in many developing countries, leading to an increased concern in the farming sector to deliver at least 70% of food to feed 40% of the anticipated global population of nine billion persons by the year 2050. Such projections call for a keen interest in studies that explore underutilised edible crops for food and nutrition security of the world’s growing population. Malnutrition of all forms including micronutrient deficiencies, “called hidden hunger”, is currently an issue of concern. About 870 million people across the globe are unable to access sufficient nutritious food that optimises dietary needs. Also, 98% of this hungry population live in the developing countries, where 15% of the population is undernourished, Susceptible persons to malnutrition identified include infants, young children, and young women of childbearing age. The impact of malnutrition impairs children’s vision at an early age, slows down cognitive development and retards general development. All forms of malnutrition are nutrient-related preventable challenges; however, it is identified as the leading factor to most morbidity and mortality rates; which limits the livelihoods of many individuals especially smallholder farmers who are residents in informal settlements of urban centres and rural communities. A food-based approach where available nutrient-dense food is incorporated as an ingredient in staple food has been identified as a good strategy to tackle malnutrition. Amaranthus is an ancient C4 plant, a drought tolerant plant that requires little attention yet maximum yield; with huge potential to provide food for nutrition security. Adequate nutrition, at the household level, is indispensable for the proper functioning of the human system and well-being. However, most marginalised, and less privileged people often follow a monotonous starchy/cereal-based diet as this is the available food to fall back on. Extensive studies have shown that about 30 000 varieties of edible plants are dispersed around the world. These plants are cheap, accessible, and highly endowed with medicinal and nutritional benefits. However, only 7000 have been utilised as food while others are underutilised including Amaranthus. It is perceived that most people harvesting Amaranthus leaves for food are the most disadvantaged and marginalised in the rural communities, thus preference issues, perceptions and stigma are linked to Amaranthus underutilisation. Amaranthus seeds have been investigated as enhancers of staple foods. Similarly, leaves of Amaranthus have been identified with great potential to enhance the nutritional value of staple foods for improved nutrition security, optimizing well-being, and improving livelihoods. However, Amaranthus leaves are yet to be explored as a supplement in many traditional foods, including Ujeqe. Online databases of peer-reviewed articles and books were reviewed around the nomenclature, nutritional, and nutraceutical value and objectives were conceived for this study. A mix design (qualitative and quantitative) research method was adopted and a purposive convenience random sampling approach was utilised for the study. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools such as transact walks, observation and key informant interviews were conducted. Semi-structured open-ended questionnaires were used to conduct a series of face-to-face interview with six key informants in five markets (n = 30) from urban and rural formal and informal markets where commonly sold/consumed varieties of Amaranthus were identified. Semi-structured questionnaires (100) were administered to gather data around the utilisation of Ujeqe and Amaranthus leaves as potential food for improved nutrition security. A clustered data of (91) respondents was analysed, using descriptive content analysis. The findings of the survey show that Ujeqe is consumed as a meal or as a snack by all people except babies. Also, it is a special meal well appreciated for its simplicity of ingredients and the mode of preparation thus, it is a convenient food that can be served at any time of the day, even in ceremonies, religious functions, and traditional worship of ancestors. Ujeqe’s complementary foods that were identified included legumes and protein-rich foods of animal origin including Usu which are less accessible to the less-privileged hence, some consume it alone as a snack or as a single food. Studies have shown that cereal-based foods without vegetables and fruits are inadequate for optimum well-being because they are lacking/limited in essential nutrients. Amaranthus plants have been investigated as food plant with essential nutrient. Its grains have been used as fortificants, but the leaves have been neglected and its application in Ujeqe steamed bread (USB) is rarely reported in the literature. Amaranthus seeds have been processed into flour and used as food fortificants in staple food. However, the processing of Amaranthus leaves is still very low. Thus, the most common species of Amaranthus grown and sold in formal and informal market in the study site (Amaranthus dubius) was sourced and self-processed into Amaranthus leaf powder (ALP) under a controlled food laboratory environment. The ALP was analysed for macro and micronutrients and utilised to develop 0%, 2%, 4% and 6% prototypes of ALP supplemented Ujeqe which was analysed for macronutrient and micronutrient content. The sensory attributes of ALP supplemented Ujeqe were evaluated using 60 untrained panellists. Moisture content of plain wheat flour (PWF) and ALP in the range 10.6-4.41g; were within the quality shelf-life before usage. The carbohydrate for this study (41.6-74.3g) and fat (1.58- 4.47g) were higher in both raw materials for the study (ALP and PWF). Likewise, the ash (2.37-17.97g) and protein (11.96-31.56g) were recorded as higher in the raw materials for the study. The micronutrient content of the raw materials showed that ALP had a higher nutritional composition than PWF with a statistically significant difference at p < 0.05. Mineral content of calcium was (30.00-2600mg), magnesium (40-120mg), zinc (3.267-7.068mg), copper (1.00- 17.34mg) manganese (1.434-3.00mg) and iron (7.200-24.00mg). The moisture of the ALP enriched Ujeqe prototypes was low, connoting a keeping quality of the shelf-life of the enriched ALP Ujeqe food products. All the macronutrient nutrients of ALP supplemented Ujeqe (Table 3) were enhanced with increased concentration of ALP. The enrichment was noted in the ash content of the 2% (2.2-0.0g), 4% (2.05-0.01g) and 6% prototypes (2.31-0.03g) respectively, with a statistically significant difference at p < 0.05. Likewise, levels of copper, phosphorus, calcium, zinc, manganese, and iron were recorded. All supplemented Ujeqe were enriched in nutrient content. The sensory evaluation indicated that all samples were acceptable. The 6% ALP Ujeqe prototype was the most enriched, but the 2% sample was the most acceptable prototype compared to the control sample followed by 4% and 6% respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in the overall consumer acceptability level of the enriched sample when compared with 0%, 2% and 4% ALP supplemented prototypes. The ALP supplemented Ujeqe was enhanced both in macro and micronutrients. The high ash content of the food samples in this study connotes ALP-supplemented sample richness in mineral content. The mineral content of the raw material, ALP was significantly higher than PWF, supplemented Ujeqe with 6% ALP containing the highest mineral content. Hence, from the nutritional point of view, the formulation was enriched significantly in some selected mineral content. Therefore, ALP supplementation in staple foods like Ujeqe can be a potential foodbased approach that is cost-effective and a sustainable measure for addressing food and nutrition insecurity, especially among the malnourished population. Fibre was not analysed in this study. Thus, future studies can explore ALP-supplemented Ujeqe’s fibre content and microbial tests can be carried out to determine its shelf stability. Continuous research around underutilised food plants including Amaranthus for food and nutrition security can be explored in other staple foods as viable measures to tackle nutrition security. Also, the need for effective implementation of relevant research to help in the domestication of Amaranthus cannot be overemphasised. Thus, improving the small-scale farming of Amaranthus to a larger scale appears to be a realistic way forward. Therefore, the South African government should assist small-scale farmers of Amaranthus with all the extension services needed as this may enhance their productivity and provide food and nutrition security for the community. Similarly, policymakers should consider the provision of land, finance, fertiliser, seeds, herbicides, fences, insecticides, and grants to encourage farmers to plant leafy vegetable foods like Amaranthus for nutrition security. Enhancing small-scale farmer’s capital should involve financial support from the government and the provision of land. Iqoqa. Ukuntuleka kwezinikamsoco kuyinkinga enkulu ehlasele imiphakathi esengozini kwezempilo, ikakhulukazi, izingane nabesifazane abasebangeni lokukhiqiza inzalo emazweni amaningi, okuhlanganisa nelaseNingizimu Afrikha. Amasu aqondene nokudla okuyizidlo ezinhlobonhlobo ikakhulukazi emakhaya agqanyiswe njengezindlela ezibiza kahle nezisimeme ekubhekaneni nezinselelo zokuntuleka kokudla. Nokho-ke izilimo zase-Afrikha ezinamaqabunga ngokuvamile zishiywa ngaphandle uma kukhulunywa ngezinhlelo zokudla, ikakhulukazi okudliwa emakhaya. Kukhona cishe izinhlobonhlobo zezitshalo ezidliwayo ezibalelwa ezi-30 000 emhlabeni wonke jikelele, ezinye zinosizo ekwelapheni futhi zinomsoco kanti zibiza inani eliphansi. Kodwa-ke ziyizi-7000 kuphela izitshalo ezisetshenziswa njengokudla kulezi, kusale eziningi ngaphandle, kubalwa kuzo nembuya (amaranthus) ezingasetshenziswa ngokwanele ekudleni okusanhlamvana okunomsoco ongatheni. ENingizimu Afrikha, ujeqe, othathwa njengokudla kwesintu okusanhlamvana ubambe iqhaza elikhulu kwezamasiko futhi uthandwa abantu abaningi. Kodwa-ke ukudla okuhambisana nawo kuvame ukuba ubhontshisi nemikhiqizo yenyama okuyizinto ezingatholakali kalula kubantu abadla imbuya ngothi. Ukudla ujeqe wodwa ngaphandle kwezithelo noma imifino kungaholela ezinselelweni zokuntuleka kwezinikamsoco. Ngakho-ke, ubambe iqhaza elikhulu njengokudla okunezinikamsoco, ikakhulukazi kubantu abakudla njengokudla okulula noma isidlo esisodwa. Lolu cwaningo luhlolisise inzuzo ngezinikamsoco, nokwakheka kweminerali kanye nokwamukeleka kojeqe othakwe ngembuya njengendlela yokungenelela ukulwisana nendlala kanye nokuqinisekisa ukutholakala kokudla okunomsoco. Ujeqe othakiwe ubonakala njengesixazululo sokunciphisa isidina ohlelweni lokudla kwesintu ube futhi wenza kangcono ukutholakala kokunomsoco. Kwasetshenziswa indlelakwenza exubile yokucwaninga kanye nendlela yokuqoka ngenhloso ukubheka izinhloso zocwaningo ezine. Kwabhalwa ama-athikhili amane njengezahluko zomqingo wocwaningo kwathi amabili awo ashicilelwa, eyodwa yamukelwa ukuba ishicilelwe, eyokugcina yahanjiswa kwijenali esemthwethweni. Imiphumela yocwaningo itshengisa ukuthi isandiso sobungakokujiya be-ALP kuholele ekuthuthukiseni ubunjalo bojeqe, ikakhulukazi i-Ash kanye neprothini okutholakala kuwo. Kanjalo ne-calcium, ikhopha, iphothasiyamu, ifosferas, imanganese kanye ne-iron etholakala kuwo kwathonywa kakhulu ngo (p<0.05). Izengezo zibonakale ziyisixazululo esithembisayo ekwenzeni ngcono izinga lokutholakala kokudla okunomsoco. Ujeqe onezengezo ezingama-2% ubonakele njengesibonelo esamukeliwe njengesampula yokulawulwa. Ngokunjalo ubungekho umehluko omkhulu phakathi kwamasampula amane kanye nama-6%. Kodwa-ke isampula yama-6% ibe yisibonelo esingamukelwanga kahle. Ucwaningo olusha lungahlaziya i-fiber etholakalayo.