Food Security

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The acceptance of indigenous leafy vegetables and their contribution to household food security in Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, South Africa.
(2022) Zulu, Sinethemba.; Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon Cloapas.
The dietary shift from indigenous leafy vegetables to cash crops production and consumption increased the risk of micronutrients deficiency diseases, especially among rural-poor communities. The less consumption of ILVs promotes hunger and food insecurity among rural and urban households. An increase in consumption of these leafy vegetables helps minimize malnutrition, hunger, and food insecurity. Each ILV contain different levels of micronutrients, suggesting that diversifying ILVs in consumption has the potential to reduce health conditions associated with micronutrient deficiency. Therefore, understanding consumer acceptance of indigenous leafy vegetables (ILVs) is important in enhancing their consumption levels to increase micronutrient intake. However, the determinants of consumers' acceptance of ILVs, vis-à-vis its potential impact on household food security, is neglected by researchers, as a result, declining. This study was set out to assess the determinants of acceptance of indigenous leafy vegetables by consumers in Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces. The study used secondary data that was collected by the South African Vulnerability Assessment Committee in 2016. A total of 1520 respondents were selected from the two provinces using a multistage stratified sampling method. In analyzing the determinants of consumers' acceptance of ILVs, a seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) model was employed. The results of SUR showed that the gender of the household head, marital status, HIV status, wages/salary, and grants were statistically significant in influencing the acceptance of ILVs by consumers. The study further revealed that amaranth and cleome were the most accepted leafy vegetables while blackjack was the least accepted one. Education and marital status had a negative influence on the acceptance of all leafy vegetables being investigated in this study. While estimating the impact of ILVs consumption on household food security, the household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) was used to determine the household food security status of the respondents. In the same vein, the endogenous switching probit model (ESPM) was employed to estimate the impact of ILVs consumption on household food security status. The results from the household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) showed that a large proportion of the population was food secure while a small portion of the population was food insecure. The correlation coefficients rho_1 and rho_ 0 in the ESRM were negative (-0.992) and positive (0.970), respectively. This indicates that self-selection occurred in the consumption of ILVs between both consumers and non-consumers of ILVs. The results from descriptive statistics revealed that most consumers did not produce ILVs but consumed them. While a small number of farmers produced ILVs yet did not consume them. The household size and wealth index variables were positive and significant to the consumption of ILVs. On the other hand, age, gender, and education variables had a negative influence on the consumption of ILVs. To increase the acceptance of ILVs, especially the least accepted ones. The study recommends that extension officers must educate farmers about the importance of these leafy vegetables. NGOs can provide agricultural input such as seedlings, fertilizers, farm machinery to encourage the production of underutilized ILVs among smallholder farmers, including blackjack. Strategies to enhance value addition and sensitization of consumers to traditional knowledge regarding leafy ILVs, and their nutritional importance to the human diet are required.
Access to irrigation and its impact on vulnerability to poverty and food security amongst South African farming households.
(2023) Adetoro, Adetoso Adebiyi.; Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon Cloapas.; Danso-Abbeam, Gideon.
The significance of participating in irrigation technology in eliminating vulnerability to poverty and improving farming households’ food security status cannot be overemphasized. Numerous studies have empirically examined the influence of farm management practices, including irrigation, on poverty reduction and overall household well-being. However, a notable gap exists in the literature concerning the specific impact of irrigation farming on vulnerability to poverty, multidimensional household poverty, and the welfare of rural farming households. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the nuanced relationship between irrigation participation and key welfare indicators within the context of rural communities. The study consists of four main objectives, each of which is an article and chapter of this thesis. In each of the articles, the significance, methods, data, findings and policy implications are detailed, and these are presented in the below sections. In the first objective, the study employed the documentary analysis approach and bibliometric technique to mine and analyse relevant documents for evaluating facts and evidence, which largely concurs with the method of information gathering used in the qualitative study method. In the analysis period (1991-2022), the most published articles on impacts of irrigation on household poverty appeared to be in 2022, indicating the growing concern on depleting food resource access. Overall, the findings revealed that irrigation adoption produced better yields and increased farm incomes thereby reducing rural household poverty as well as vulnerability to poverty. The study, therefore, suggests that more sophisticated and innovative methods, such as the proposed multi-level framework, conglomerate approach, and community-led solutions, should be developed and implemented to promote household food dynamics, food system resilience, and governance in the context of South Africa. The second segment of the research focuses on the effect of participation in irrigation farming on food security among rural farming households. The study employed an endogenous treatment effect with ordered outcome to achieve its objectives. The empirical findings indicate that the engagement of rural households in irrigation farming has a higher probability of mitigating food insecurity. This is attributed to the enhanced productivity and improved food accessibility that irrigation farming provides, particularly in the face of severe weather-induced shocks like drought. The findings also showed that the gender of the household head, the size of the household, unemployment status, access to market outlets, remittances and crop diversification (CDV) factors increase the likelihood of rural farmers’ involvement in irrigation farming, as well as reduces their food insecurity. Based on the findings, the study suggested that government intervention policies and a restructuring of rural operations to include more technological innovations such as advanced irrigation systems be reviewed. The third segment of the study focuses on the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to multidimensional poverty, which was carried out using the Alkire Foster multidimensional poverty index developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. The findings showed that the deprivation indicator ranges from 5% to 90%, where about 66% and 55% were deprived of food security (SDG2) and education (SDG4), respectively. The results of the probit analysis reveal that gender, remittances, crop diversification (CDV), education, seasonal farming and market outlets significantly influence the multidimensional poverty and vulnerability to multidimensional poverty of rural households in the study areas. The last part of the study examines the factors that influence farmers’ participation in irrigation farming, as well as how it affects farmers’ welfare (proxy by food consumption expenditure per capita) and household poverty (indicated by the poverty gap index, poverty severity and poverty vulnerability). The endogenous switching regression (ESR) model was employed to account for selection bias that could be caused by both observed and unobserved household factors, including observed and unobserved farm-level factors. The empirical results show that gender, household size, educational attainment, crop diversification and market outlets, among others, influenced farmers’ decisions to practise irrigation farming. Farmers engaging in irrigation farming have their food consumption per capita increased by 44%, while nonparticipants would have increased their consumption expenditure per capita by 23% if they had participated. Moreover, the participating farmers reduced their poverty gap index by 20% and poverty severity by 22%, whereas non-participating farmers could have reduced their poverty gap index and poverty severity by 5% and 17%, respectively had they engaged in irrigation farming. Participation in irrigation farming also reduced poverty vulnerability by 25%, while non-participants may have reduced poverty vulnerability by 3% had they participated. Overall, the study suggests that the household food dynamics and food system resilience and governance in the context of South Africa need to devote more time to reliable and innovative methods, such as the conglomerate approach, community-led solutions and appropriate strategies, which need to be implemented in order to mitigate the collapse of the nation’s food systems. In addition, the study recommend that enhancing farmers’ access to irrigation is crucial for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to eradicate poverty in all its manifestations everywhere. Lastly, the study suggests that improving policies related to improving education and increasing crop diversification among other factors, could contribute to reducing the multidimensional poverty and the households’ vulnerability to poverty.
Agricultural development and food security in post-conflict southern Sudan.
(2011) Kenyi, Michael Roberto.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Shimelis, Hussein Ali.
This study was set out to examine household food security in post- conflict Southern Sudan. Over the past four years the Government of Southern Sudan and Development Partners have shown increased interest in accelerating agricultural development and food security in the country. This study provides insight into the key factors responsible for food insecurity, the challenges faced and household coping strategies employed to reduce and manage risk, assure food supply, improve dietary diversity and take advantage of economic opportunities for sustainable livelihoods. The problem addressed by this study was whether cereal (sorghum, millet, maize and wheat) availability in three of the ten states of Southern Sudan improved in the five year post conflict period (2004-2008). The study explored if cereal grain production increased and how households coped with the unavailability of cereal grain. The researcher gathered data and information from multiple sources, including 542 household questionnaires and nine focus group discussion conducted between June and August 2009. Quantitative analysis supplemented the extensive qualitative data sources. The major challenges experienced by households with regard to food security were limited access to extension services, production inputs, processing, credit/saving facilities, training, market information and physical infrastructure. Evidence showed that food insecurity occurred due to the lack or absence of feeder roads, communication and transport facilities, strategic value chain alliances and partnerships; and limited exposure to communities for learning in Southern Sudan. The study concluded that the availability of cereals at the household level was generally low, although cereal production increased by small increments across the study areas after the conflict period. However, the increase in cereal production was inadequate to support the cereal needs of households, leading to food insecurity. The study identified the major factors responsible for food insecurity at the household level in the study areas as conflict, drought, floods and erratic rains. Poor infrastructure, weak policies and lack of access to services to improve farm production were among the key constraints reported by households. These factors were perceived by all stakeholders as root causes of inadequate food production in the study area. Household production provided 56.6 % of household food consumption, but this was inadequate to provide year-round. Other food sources included purchases, food aid and gifts. Households relied largely on consumption-based coping strategies when faced with food shortages including: relying on less preferred food, limiting meal portion sizes, mothers reducing their food to allow children to eat and reducing the number of meals eaten per day. These strategies are detrimental to the nutritional status of household members; considering that proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Therefore, food insecurity was high in the study areas and detrimental coping strategies were widely practiced, raising concerns of hunger and malnutrition. Food insecurity in Southern Sudan needs to be addressed urgently. Direct interventions to support a significant scaling up of food production (beyond only cereal production) are needed to alleviate hunger, prevent malnutrition and provide for future food security especially among resettling refugees and demobilized soldiers. In many cases food aid and direct transfers of food is urgently needed to address the situation, but this should be short-term and part of an integrated plan to boost production of food at community level. Programmes should be developed to assist households should establish food gardens, diversify cropping and undertake non-farm activities in improving food production and productivity. The local communities should participate in community-based food security needs assessment with strong support provided by the county agriculture department and state Ministries of Agriculture. This must lead to the identification of implementation measures and development of food security plans and budgets that include both increased production and market access. An inter-sectoral Food Security Council (FSC) and a framework for action should be developed to include strategic management of cereal grain reserves, establishment of an effective and and efficient public distribution system, harmonisation of relevant sector policies and development of a well coordinated food security information system. Longitudinal studies are recommended to monitor the food security situation in Southern Sudan and gain a deeper understanding of household coping strategies to inform policies and programmes. Further research is recommended to investigate how to increase the supply of food, promoting dietary diversification, improve access to economic opportunities and manage risk to help vulnerable households become more resilient to absorb shocks, stresses and threats.
An investigation of farmers level of participation in revitalized smallholder irrigation schemes in the KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa.
(2023) Rabothata, Matome Freddy.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Senzanje, Aidan.; Kolanisi, Unathi.
Agricultural irrigation development should be considered an essential cornerstone for food security, economic growth, and adaptation to climate change. Effective irrigation management contributes substantially to many Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Nevertheless, current irrigation schemes in Sub Saharan Africa perform below expectations, resulting in unreliable, inadequate, and inequitable access to irrigation water. Due to this, Sub-Saharan Africa is hindered from reaching its developmental goals in the irrigation sector. Various researchers identified five major limitations of African irrigation schemes, i.e., high capital costs, exaggerated and overestimated gains, a lack of understanding of the social reality, the absence of management skills and responsible human resources, and the neglect of operations and maintenance. Furthermore, most studies on African irrigation schemes also identified an overly centralised and bureaucratic management system as a major limitation. Thus, management transfer became a key strategy. Management transfer can be categorized differently according to the mode of implementation and phases, such as irrigation management transfer (IMT), participatory irrigation management (PIM), turnover or responsibility transfer. In South Africa, PIM/IMT policies were adopted and referred to as Revitalisation of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (RESIS), which aimed at rehabilitating irrigation infrastructure and providing farmers with access to input and output markets, training, financial support and assists with establishment of functional institutions within irrigation schemes. However, most countries, including South Africa, lack effective policy implementation strategies that encourage farmer participation to maintain irrigation schemes after government support is withdrawn. The main aim of the study was to investigate factors affecting farmers' level of participation during the decision-making, implementation, benefit sharing, and evaluation stages of PIM/IMT related programmes such as the RESIS in South Africa, and their effect on farmers' access to water for irrigation in selected revitalised smallholder irrigation scheme in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, South Africa. The study described demographic and socioeconomic factors of farmers in Makhathini, NdumoB, Tugela Ferry, and Mooi River irrigation schemes using descriptive statistics, an analysis of variance (ANOVA), and a Chi-square test. Multiple Linear and Probit Regression models were used to determine the effect of selected socioeconomic and demographic factors, RESIS knowledge, the RESIS programme and its implementers, and access to irrigation on farmers' level of participation and farmers' access to water in four revitalised smallholder irrigation schemes, respectively. Results indicated that the average age of farmers across four irrigation schemes is 54.38 years. Household heads own 4.66ha of land on average, but farmers in Makhathini and NdumoB have significantly larger plots than farmers in Mooi River and Tugela Ferry. Farmers in different irrigation schemes have statistically significant differences in education and marital status. Despite this, more than half of farmers were married. RESIS was known to more than half of the farmers in the four irrigation schemes. Furthermore, farmers expressed positive attitudes towards training and institutional arrangements, but were dissatisfied with their access to markets, financial support, and irrigation infrastructure. Farmers in Tugela Ferry were pleased with their irrigation infrastructure, but other irrigation schemes were not. Farmers in Makhathini were happier with market access than farmers in other irrigation schemes. Farmers were generally pleased with the participatory approaches, efficiency, effectiveness, and fairness of RESIS implementers. The overall Farmer Participation Index (FPI) in four irrigation schemes was around 50%, indicating that more farmers were not participating. Over 50% of farmers did not have adequate, timely, or equitable access to water across four irrigation schemes. With the exception of gender, all variables regressed against farmer participation were statistically significant. Age, education level, marital status, household and plot sizes, farmers' access to irrigation water, farmers' knowledge of RESIS and RESIS market access, financial support, institutional support, rehabilitated irrigation infrastructure and training, and RESIS implementers' fairness and participatory approach, efficiency, and effectiveness were found to have statistically significant effects on farmers' participation in various stages of the RESIS programme. Farmers' attitudes towards access to rehabilitated irrigation infrastructure, markets, financial support, training, the effectiveness of RESIS Implementers, and farmer participation during RESIS decision-making stages all had a statistically significant impact on their likelihood of accessing water for irrigation in four revitalised irrigation schemes. The implementation plans for the RESIS programme should not be viewed as one size fits all because demographic and socioeconomic factors may vary from irrigation scheme to irrigation scheme. Consequently, the study recommends determining a suitable project implementation plan for each scheme that will encourage farmers to participate throughout all phases of RESIS.
Analysing food security status among farmworkers in the Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme, Vhembe district, Limpopo Province.
(2020) Mudzielwana, Rudzani Vhuyelwani Angel.; Mafongoya, Paramu.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
Historically, South African rural households produced most of their food. Recently, rural households depend on market purchases, and possibly from neighbours. Currently, unemployment and lack of access to irrigable land, to own or lease, has affected livelihoods patterns of the rural poor, such as farm workers. The lack of financial resources leads to poverty and hinders the ability to purchase food at the household level. This study assessed food security status among farmworkers and land lessees’ households in the Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme, Vhembe District, in Limpopo Province, with 51%.8 food secure, 7.3% mildly food secure, 19.9% moderately food insecure and 20.9% severely food insecure. The study aims to contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between rural livelihoods and food security status among farmworker households. A simple random sampling technique was used to select 191 farmworker households. A structured questionnaire was administered, and a focus group discussion and key informant interviews were conducted for data collection. The Binary Probit regression model was used to analyze livelihood diversification strategies among farmworkers’ households. The results showed that the gender of a farmworker (p<0.05), number of farmworker’s dependents (p<0.01), and access to the market (p<0.05) were statistically significant factors that positively influenced farmworker household’s livelihood diversification. However, employment type (p<0.01), years of farming experience (p<0.01) and leasing land (p<0.05) were found to negatively influence irrigation farmworker’s livelihood diversification. The Multinomial Logistic regression model was used to determine factors that influence the choice of livelihood strategy among farmworker households. Regression results showed that age of the farmworker (p<0.01), marital status of the farmworker (p<0.01) and (p<0.5), dependents of the farmworker (p<0.05), leasing land from employer (p<0.05) and (p<0.05), years of farming experience (p<0.1) and (p<0.01), agricultural training (p<0.05) and access to the market, significantly influence the choice of livelihood strategy.The Ordered Probit regression model was used for assessing the determinants of household food insecurity. The results showed that land size (p<0.05) and total household expenditure (p<0.05) positively influence farmworkers household food insecurity. Food stored (p<0.1) and leasing land from employer (p<0.01) had a negative influence on farmworkers food insecurity status. This study concluded that land leasing has the potential to improve food security status and enhance the standard of living among irrigation farmworkers. Therefore, the government, in collaboration with local authorities, should develop and implement effective policies to support farm owners to rent out irrigation plots to their employees as a way of addressing food security.
An analysis of the food baskets and their implications for household food security, uMsunduzi Local Municipality.
(2018) Shelembe, Nomfundo.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Kolanisi, Unathi.
In South Africa, most, poor households rely on food purchases than production, the regularity of quality food intake relates directly to cost and access. The compromised access to food status exposes most households to a shortage of essential vitamins and minerals in the human body that define hidden hunger. Hidden hunger is a silent killer with a potential to afflict irreversible health effects as well as socioeconomic consequences that can hinder an individual‟s development and welfare. Iron, iodine, vitamin A, and zinc deficiencies are the most widespread hidden hunger outcomes that are common contributors to poor growth, intellectual impairments, perinatal complications and increased risk of morbidity and mortality. In 2003, the food fortification program was introduced in South Africa to assist in alleviating the micronutrient deficiency problem. This study assessed the composition of household food baskets and the implications on food security, with special focus on how food fortification affects a household‟s diet in the uMsunduzi Local Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. A random sample of 200 households was selected for data collection from an urban and peri-urban residential area. A structured questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews collected data. Descriptive statistics presented the relationship between household-level characteristics, on one hand, and food fortification awareness and food security, on the other. Demographic results showed that there were 26 percent of unemployed and 37 percent of pension holding household heads where 60 percent have a secondary level of education. It was also observed that households who were unaware and those aware of food fortification had a significant association in food purchasing patterns, household monthly income, household food expenditure, media recognition, garden ownership as well as price, brand, and considerations of child preference when purchasing food. Binomial regression models estimated predictors of food fortification awareness and of household fortified food purchasing. Results showed that age of head of household, employment status, price consideration, food fortification logo identification and household size had a significant effect on household fortified food purchasing. On the other hand, age, employment status, household medical issues, the frequency of shopping, food basket decision-maker and household monthly income significantly affected awareness of food fortification. Price was found to be a leading influencing factor of purchasing decision-making as opposed to nutrition value. However, the modern consumer purchasing decision-making processing is slowly changing as they are beginning to care and are curious about the nutritional value of their foods and contribution it makes to their health and active life. The findings identify some factors that can be used for positively influencing food fortification awareness and household fortified food purchasing. Results also showed that after 14 years of the introduction of food fortification in South Africa, 73% households remain unaware of food fortification and on average consumed less than the recommended daily caloric requirements. Results in the study suggested that although households may be unaware of food fortification, food products chosen to improve the crisis (fortification program) are reaching the consumers and are being purchased, as they are accessible and affordable. The analysis of household food baskets showed that prices of food items influence a large number of consumers and this dictates what is purchased for the household. Households with a low income are more likely to focus on quantity than quality foods meaning that the importance of nutrition lacks behind. Households who are unaware of food fortification tend to make poor food choices and need to be more exposed to nutrition education. The limited awareness of food fortification suggested that it may be an underlying indirect cause of hidden hunger. It was recommended that the ultimate objective of the staple food fortification program is to assist the South African population to receive the necessary quantities of the micronutrients needs via the purchasing and consumption of the chosen food items, this can be achieved through further programs that assure the awareness of the population. It was also recommended that intervention programs be implemented to empower nutrition education and that they target all types of consumers and specific areas that are similar to Sweetwaters and Edendale. Schools, health facilities, and media must be given a greater platform for the output distribution and maintenance of nutritional education with special focus on the benefits of food fortification as it was clear, in the study that such information has not yet transcended ages, educational levels and employment statuses. The cost-effective and efficient way of ensuring that households have access to micronutrients rich diets is the promotion of household gardens, agricultural-based interventions such as biofortification and planting of indigenous plants/crops as they are usually rich in vitamin A, Zinc, Iron and other valuable minerals.
Analysis of the local understanding of food insecurity and the socio-economic causes of food insecurity in Ward three of the Jozini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2011) Nyakurimwa, Marvis.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Pillay, Kirthee.
Although food insecurity is a major problem in South African society, there is limited community level information on what constitutes it and related causative socio-economic factors. This study fills this information gap by analysing food insecurity in Ward 3 of Jozini Local Municipality in uMkhanyakude district in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Specifically, the study explored the local understanding of food security and its socio-economic causes. A qualitative study was conducted using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques through a four-day workshop, supplemented with stakeholder interviews. The techniques used were historical timeline, seasonal calendar, focus group discussions, transect walk, problem tree analysis, social and resource mapping and semi-structured interviews. A four-day workshop was conducted with 44 participants that included traditional leadership, adult men and women, and young members of the community. The people of Ward 3 of Jozini Municipality regarded food insecurity as hunger that resulted in many socio-economic effects such as collapse of household unity and stability that enhanced erosion of dignity among household members. Hunger was commonly associated with “not eating enough”. Other effects of hunger included household heads, especially men resorting to alcohol and drug abuse as a way of escaping from indignity. The youth were said to be involved in crime, prostitution and alcohol abuse. As result of hunger, sick people defaulted from taking treatment against tuberculosis and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Indicators of food secure households were access to funds, ownership of cattle, possession of arable land and access to water. Very irregular emissions of smoke from kitchens of food insecure households indicated that they had nothing to cook and eat. The people of Ward 3, Jozini revealed the choices made in the context of limited income to buy food. The choices included migration to urban areas in search of employment, women resorting to sex work, livelihoods activities such as gardening and craftwork. In the absence of an adult, many child headed households were said to be food insecure. The socio-economic factors causing food insecurity were poverty, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and AIDS pandemic, unemployment, illiteracy, low household food production, limited access to resources such as water and land. The HIV and AIDS pandemic exacerbated food insecurity at household level. Furthermore, poverty forced women into sex work which places them at high risk of contracting HIV and spreading it to their multiple partners. In addition, as a coping mechanism men committed crime such as poaching of animals from game reserves which further expose them to loss of livelihoods and food security options. The socio-economic factors contributing to food insecurity were so intertwined such that an integrated approach is recommended as the best approach for solving the compounded problems. Further local population should be engaged to define solutions to the problems. To enhance self-reliance and self-drive among communities, adult basic education training should be incorporated to reduce the high illiteracy rate. The local leaders should be engaged to bring the large tracts of land owned by old people into full utilisation. The non-government, government and institutions working in the area should strengthen and diversify livelihoods to promote livelihoods sustainability and enable communities to survive shocks by reducing asset poverty.
Analysis of the Southern African development community national vulnerability assessment committees (SADC NVACs) : towards the establishment of an effective and efficient South African vulnerability assessment committee (SAVAC).
(2014) Masechaba, Ramphoko Moipone.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Vulnerability assessment and analysis is an important part of food security analysis. In Southern African Development Community, assessment is through the (NVACs) National Vulnerability Assessment Committees. However there is no framework informing effectiveness and efficiency. The study aimed at determining the essential elements of effectiveness and efficiency in NVACs. A model framework for analysing effectiveness and efficiency of NVACs was developed. Secondary data was then collected in NVACs supplementing it with key informant interviews. Matrices were developed from the model framework to assign scores for NVACs’ effectiveness and efficiency using the robot system. This was followed by SWOT analysis. The study revealed that all NVACs are effective but 89% are highly effective. On the contrary, 67% NVACs proved efficient with 22% highly efficient. The NVACs had more weaknesses than strengths, opportunities nor threats. Based on the study’s definition of effectiveness and efficiency, it was concluded that NVACs’ problems are mostly internal. Emphasis on data management, regular monitoring and evaluations and NVACs’ inclusion in government’s budget were recommended. In addition, South African NVAC framework to effectively and efficiently assess vulnerability was developed and recommended.
An analysis of the value chain participation and profitability of smallholder irrigators in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
(2021) Ngcongo, Siyanda.; Mudhara, Takudzwa James.
Smallholder irrigation farming is perceived as a transformative approach to poor rural households as it improves livelihoods and alleviates poverty. However, most smallholder irrigators are characterized by poor value chain participation because they lack market information and infrastructures such as bridges, good roads, and storage. Therefore, these constraints end up affecting their profitability. The study's objectives were: to identify actors involved in the value chain of smallholder irrigators, determinants of smallholder irrigators in the agricultural value chain, and level of participation, and to identify factors affecting the profitability of smallholder irrigators. Probability sampling involving a simple random sampling technique was employed to select 243 respondents from two irrigation schemes, namely, Tugela Ferry and Mooi River Irrigation Schemes (TFIS and MRIS) located in Msinga Local Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Multivariate probit model, Double-hurdle model, gross margin statistics, and multiple regression model. The study used STATA and SPSS computer software to process the data. The study identified seven actors involved in the smallholder irrigators value chain: input suppliers, producers, collectors/hawkers, wholesalers, retailers, consumers, and value chain supporters. Value chain activities that farmers primarily performed were cleaning and sorting. The multivariate probit model results indicated that educational level, household size, transport reliability, market information, and farming experience significantly influence farmers' choice of market outlets for their produce. Further, econometric results showed that age, access to credit, extension service, access to roads, and livestock ownership significantly determine smallholder irrigators' value chain participation. Further, age, livestock ownership, land size, labour, credit access, and exchange of produce significantly influenced the extent of smallholder irrigators' value chain participation. The study's profitability results show a positive result for gross margin, indicating that smallholder irrigators generate sufficient income' on average' to sustain their livelihoods. The multiple linear regression analysis results revealed that age, land size, access to credit, extension service, packing cost, and tractor hire had a direct relationship with the profitability of smallholder irrigators. The study recommends the improvement of the input supply system, creation of organisations or groups in order to facilitate marketing of produce surplus, strengthening the linkage/interaction among producers value chain actors, training of farmers through workshops, seminars, strengthening extension services, demonstration farm plots is essential and expanding the accessibility of market infrastructure and supportive institutions.
Assessing the feasibility of making egg powder at rural community level for improved household food security.
(2014) Mnyandu, Elizabeth.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Siwela, Muthulisi.; Amonsou, Eric Oscar.
Limited knowledge of egg storage and preservation methods has led to the underutilisation of eggs in rural communities, and yet if rural communities could process the eggs into powder as is commercially done, their food security could improve. Processing the eggs into egg powder by sun-drying seems an economically appropriate technology for rural communities, but could negatively impact on the quality and safety of the eggs and as such should be assessed. This study was carried out in the area of Impendle in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa to investigate the feasibility of making egg powder at rural community level. The study investigated consumer perceptions on egg consumption and use, their storage and preservation methods used on eggs locally, as well as consumer knowledge on current egg preservation technologies being used in food manufacturing industries. The results of the study indicated that rural households regarded eggs as nutritious food that forms part of the household monthly food basket. Nonetheless, egg consumption is still subjected to cultural beliefs. The study also revealed an interest in consuming indigenous eggs, but challenges such as inconsistent supply, losses associated with deterioration and predators were noted as the primary barriers. Due to these barriers the community of Impendle mainly consumes commercial eggs. The disadvantages noted with the purchasing of eggs are affordability, perishability; and limited access to egg retailers. The study further investigated the effects of sun drying and oven drying of eggs in a home setup. A sample of eggs was sun-dried and another oven-dried into powder. The microbiological quality and safety of the egg powders were assessed against an egg (control) using standard methods. Sun dried eggs had the flavour of the fresh eggs, but had a darker colour than that of fresh eggs. After 16 days, the sun dried eggs had a rancid flavour. The oven dried eggs had a cooked flavour and their colour closely resembled that of sun dried eggs. These egg powders did not show signs of physical deterioration over a period of eight weeks. Microbiological analysis results showed that the egg powders met the standards for egg quality and safety as indicated by their levels of Salmonella spp., E. coli, Coliforms, Listeria monocytogenes, and Total Plate Count. The acceptance of egg powder by the rural community was determined by sensory evaluation and focus group discussions. A 63-member consumer panel recruited from the study rural community assessed the sensory acceptability of a scrambled commercial egg powder compared to a scrambled fresh egg on 5-point facial Hedonic scale, 1= very bad; 5= very good. Focus group discussions were conducted to investigate the perceptions of the local rural community about the consumption of egg powder. Focus groups consisted of eight to 12 people drawn from the egg consumption/questionnaire survey participants. The findings showed that the participants could tell the difference between the fresh egg and egg powder in terms of colour and flavour; the flavour of the fresh egg was more acceptable to the panellists than that of the egg powder. With regard to taste, the consumers liked both eggs. Although the focus group panellists indicated that it was their first experience with egg powder as a food item, they generally had positive perceptions about it and thereby showed an eagerness and willingness to learn about egg powder and to use the egg powder technology for improving their food security. This study shows that eggs are a common and significant food source for the rural community of Impendle. However, this community faces challenges in the utilisation of eggs due to their perishability, which is confounded by their little knowledge on egg storage and preservation, and a limited access to egg retailers. The findings of this study suggest that processing eggs into powder could be a successful preservation method at rural community level, which could improve household food security. If done under hygienic conditions as in this study, the egg powder would be of acceptable microbiological quality safety for human consumption. The study was limited to a small sample of the rural community of Impendle and the study participants did not practically try the technology of processing egg into powder by sun-drying; further studies should, among other issues, address these before attempting to roll out the technology.
Assessing the food security status of households participating in community gardens in the Maphephetheni uplands determined by the Household Food Security Access Scale.
(2007) Shisanya, Stephen Odede.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
While South Africa is nationally food secure, the m ajority of rural households are food insecure. Community and home gardens are widel y promoted to alleviate food insecurity. Households in the Maphephetheni Uplands , KwaZulu-Natal have come together to cultivate community gardens, producing food crops for consumption and selling surpluses. This study evaluated the contrib ution of community gardens towards alleviating food insecurity in the Maphephe theni Uplands. A survey was conducted among 53 participants of community garden s and their households. A questionnaire and focus group discussions were used to evaluate the following household food security measures: anxiety and uncer tainty about food supply; consumption of a variety of preferred foods; consum ption of sufficient quantities of food; and the prevalence of food insecurity. Eighty percent of the participating households had insufficient food intake, 72% consum ed food of inadequate quality and 89% were anxious and uncertain about food suppl ies. Among the households surveyed using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, 88.7% were categorised as severely food insecure, often going a day withou t eating, going to bed hungry or running out of food for more than ten days in a mon th. Eight percent of households were moderately food secure, and three percent were mildly food insecure. No households were food secure according to the classi fication. Only 11% of the household food was sourced from community gardens, while 83% was purchased and six percent was sourced from home gardens. Limited community garden sizes, drought, floods, theft, pests and diseases were ide ntified by community gardeners as factors limiting the contribution of community gard ens to household food security. Community gardens have not alleviated food insecuri ty among the participating households. It is recommended that an investigation should be carried out on how productivity could be improved through appropriate crop husbandry practices to reduce crop loses. Since purchasing is the main sou rce of food among community gardeners, alternative income generating activities need to be investigated.
Assessing the nutritional quality and consumer acceptability of moringa oleifera leaf powder (molp)-based snacks for improved children’s food and nutrition security.
(2017) Zungu, Nozipho.; Van Onselen, Annette.; Siwela, Muthulisi.; Kolanisi, Unathi.
Abstract available in PDF file.
Assessment and determinants of household food security status in the Umzumbe local municipality, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2023) Zabuloni, Byamungu Lincoln.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Although South Africa is a nationally food-secure country, this is not the case at household and individual levels, where food insecurity is unacceptably high, particularly in rural areas, where many households struggle to meet their own food needs. In order to address the food insecurity and poverty challenges in the rural areas of South Africa, the Department of Agriculture has been promoting home and community garden programmes to increase the food production of poor and vulnerable rural households. This study aimed to assess the level of participation of households in the food garden programmes and the factors affecting their access to them. In addition, the study evaluated the effect of these two programmes on the household’s food security status and their determinants in the uMzumbe Local Municipality. As home and community garden programmes have been widely implemented in all the municipality wards, this study applied a simple random sampling method, in order to give all the wards a chance of being selected. The purposive sampling method was used to select the village samples from the wards, in which both the home and community garden programmes have been implemented. In order to collect data, a structured questionnaire was administered directly to 223 household respondents out of 1792 households within three sampled wards. The results of the study showed that the level of participation of the households in the food gardens implemented was very low (23.8%). About 13%, 10.3% and 0.45% of respondents participated in home garden, community garden, and a combination of community and home garden programmes, respectively. The Logistic model results indicated that factors, such as livestock ownership (p=0.067) and extension services (p=001), positively influenced the participation of households in the community garden programme, while the farm size (p=0.008), the purpose of farming (p=0.068) and the total income negatively affected their participation. In contrast, the farm size (p=0.026), the purpose of farming (p=091) and the extension services (p=0.001) positively affected the participation of farmers in home garden programme. The results revealed that both programmes were ineffective for improving the food security status of households in the uMzumbe area. Their food security status was positively impacted by the total income (p=0.001), extension services (p=0.04), credit access (p=0.067), age, farm size (p=0.024) and education level (p=0.091), whereas it was negatively influenced by the household size (p=0.001), as well as the size of the home gardens (p=0.046) and community gardens (p=0.032). The study indicated that the implementation of the home and community garden programmes was not enough, in and of itself, for improving the food security status of those living in the uMzumbe area. Therefore, it is recommended that factors, such as income generation, credit access, educational and extension services, should be considered for improving the participation in, and effectiveness of, the home and community garden programmes, and for improving the food security status of residents in the uMzumbe Local Municipality. Key words: home garden, community garden, uMzumbe Municipality and food security
An assessment of agricultural skills and their effect on agricultural productivity and household food security : a case of Tugela ferry irrigation scheme in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa.
(2013) Maziya, Mbongeni.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Agriculture is a crucial sector of the economy in many developing countries as it significantly contributes to domestic production and hence household food security. Lack of technical and managerial skills have been cited as the main reasons for poor performance among smallholder farmers. This study assessed the contribution of agricultural skills and knowledge to agricultural productivity, on one hand, and household food security, on the other hand. By identifying agricultural skills that are critical to agricultural productivity, the study seeks to find out ways of improving the level of competence in farmers‟ agricultural skills, hence, food security. Data was collected from a random sample of 250 smallholder farmers (67% women) in the Tugela Ferry irrigation scheme and Machunwini area in Msinga, KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. A structured questionnaire was administered through face-to-face interviews for data collection. Descriptive statistics were used to present the results of the relationship between gender, age, level of education, access to extension services and agricultural skills and knowledge. Descriptive statistics were also used to present the results of the relationship between agricultural skills and knowledge, and agricultural productivity. The results of the descriptive statistics show that age of household head, gender, level of education and access to extension services had a significant effect on the level of competence in agricultural skills. It was also observed that agricultural skills and knowledge significantly affected agricultural productivity and household food security. The Ordinary Least Squares regression model was used to determine maize productivity and its results showed that competency in determining planting depth, irrigation scheduling and frequency, education level, farming practice and farming experience had a significant effect on maize productivity. Gender, education level, farming practice, competency in determining planting depth and nutrient deficiency in crops, goat ownership and total income had a significant effect on household food security. These findings of the regression models suggest that adjustment of the respective significant variables can influence agricultural productivity and household food security. In view of the research findings, the study identified weaknesses in the provision of extension services. Farmers experienced few extension visits and the study recommends that extension services be improved by increasing the number and effectiveness of extension agents in rural areas.
Assessment of communal land rights for smallholder farmers access to markets in South Africa : implications on gender.
(2017) Mothae, Thapelo.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Most African countries have embarked on improving agriculture, food security and reducing hunger through the support and involvement of smallholder farmers in the food production. Smallholder farmers have been key custodians of most African nations food and nutrition security, yet they are challenged by several factors including lack of access to land, access to credit and access to formal markets. Women smallholder farmers are the most affected due to the patrilineal nature of communal land allocation in most rural societies. Smallholder agriculture can provide a route out of poverty only if it is productive, commercially oriented and well linked to formal markets. Women have over the years relied on land based activities for their livelihoods and survival and food security however, they have always been marginalised in the allocation, control and command over land as a property. Several studies indicate that women perform most of the agricultural activities mainly for their households’ food security and may produce a meagre surplus for sale in the informal markets. Market access for rural smallholder farmers has been actively promoted to catalyse sustainable rural livelihood development. However, without addressing the land access and gender specific issues that rural smallholder women farmers face in accessing markets, most initiatives aimed at improving smallholder farmer livelihoods and their food security may fail to achieve their sole purpose. Culturally stipulated roles of women’s in the household and in smallholder agriculture have adverse effects on household food security due to the resultant workload burden and reduced market participation by smallholder farmers. Smallholder women farmers have to travel long distances with their meagre produce to access markets. This study assessed the relationship between gender and communal land access and how they collectively impact smallholder farmers’ access to markets. The specific objectives of the study were to determine relationships between gender and communal land access, to identify the factors affecting smallholder farmers to access agriculture markets and to determine how land access enhances smallholder farmers’ access to markets. A purposive sample of 135 households was selected in Appelsbosch, KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. The mixed methods approach of research made up of structured questionnaires, together with focus group discussions and observation was employed. Qualitative data from the focus group discussions and open-ended questions was analysed for common themes using content analysis. The data was then subjected to descriptive statistical analysis using SPSS. Statistically significant differences were observed between gender and access to land, access of land and the owner of the land (p<0.05). The results further indicated that women land rights were mostly secondary and land access was closely linked to the existence of a relationship with male relatives, largely through marital ties. The study concluded that smallholder farmers faced numerous challenges in terms of accessing land and markets. From these results, the study recommends more equitable measures for secure land rights for women farmers as individuals based on need, improvement in extension services and creation of stable markets and market access support for smallholder farmers to ensure sustainable livelihoods and food security.
An assessment of entrepreneurial attributes determining the potential of smallholder dairy farmers progressing to commercial farming.
(2016) Tanyanyiwa, Faith Kudzai.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Chimonyo, Michael.
Dairy production plays an important role in the economies of developing countries where it contributes to national gross production, provides milk for nutrition and is used for income generation. Dairy farming is critical in rural development, poverty alleviation and food and nutrition security in sub-Sahara Africa due to the large number of cattle owned by smallholder rural communities. Entrepreneurial skills among communal and emerging farmers have not been widely assessed and profiled to determine their importance among smallholder farmers. Successful entrepreneurship requires the farmer to possess a vision for growth, good interpersonal skills, strong marketing strategies, sound management skills and sharp cost-benefit consciousness. Many smallholder farmers are not able to realize meaningful economic returns from the dairy enterprise because of lack of entrepreneurial skills. The objective of the study was to determine whether emerging and communal dairy farmers have the entrepreneurial attributes required to progress to commercial dairy cattle farming. Demographic data, production and management practices and financial data were collected using face to face interviews, focus group discussions, Likert scale and transect walks. The study drew participants from Groblersdal and Matatiele areas of Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape, respectively. Males aged over 60 years dominated smallholder dairy farming. However, women participation was enhanced by the Heifer project which greatly improved their involvement in dairy farming. Youth participation was very low. Most of the farmers were making losses and the viability of their dairy enterprises was low due to lack of entrepreneurial skills coupled with other production constraints. Young farmers, female farmers and farmers who were employed elsewhere other than their dairy enterprise were less likely to possess the essential entrepreneurial attributes for profitable and viable dairy enterprises. Emerging farmers could be assisted to progress to commercial dairy farming since they have already progressed past subsistence farming, incorporating their IKS and are showing some entrepreneurial attributes. However, communal farmers may be a difficult group to progress to commercial farming given the current levels of production which are failing to meet household consumption, are not exploiting IKS opportunities available and have poor entrepreneurial attributes.
Assessment of entrepreneurial risk and water quality in urban agriculture.
(2022) Ndwalane, Sinethemba Zakhona.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Ojo, Temitope Oluwaseun.
Urban agriculture (UA) serves diverse purposes in various societies. However, there are many difficulties that urban farmers must overcome in UA, as it is a risky industry like any other sector. The limited availability of natural resources such as land and water, present production risk for the farmers as they are subjected to production on small areas of land available. The practice of agricultural production further depletes the water supplies that are accessible. Urbanization is predicted to lead to a decline in water quantity and quality because agriculture uses a big portion of the water supply and population increase. Measures, such as water resource management, drip irrigation, and wastewater re-use, are taken to manage the deterioration of water quality, as they affect how money and decisions are made. Factors such as production, pricing (market), and human, financial, and institutional risk are all risk concerns for farmers as they affect their "entrepreneurial spirit" and willingness to take on any risk. Over the years, research has addressed risk variables that influence smallholder and commercial farmers in rural regions; however, there has been little research on the risk factors that affect entrepreneurship in UA. Furthermore, the presence of risk in agriculture also presents food and nutrition insecurity as farmers tend to be risk averse. The study aimed to evaluate the risk factors on decisions making by urban farmers and the effects on income generation, while also reviewing the literature on the water policies on access, use and quality, and the farmer’s perception of the use of WW in UA and the role of UA in food and nutrition security. The study’s methodology was a mixed-method approach, employing both qualitative and quantitative data collection and data analysis methods. A multistage sampling technique was used to randomly select 78 urban households. The sample included 48 urban farmers and 30 non-urban respondents who were purposefully selected to be part of the study. The selection was complimented through a structured questionnaire survey complemented by observations and focus group discussions. For data analysis of the qualitative and quantitative results, the study made use of a thematic and content analysis of the policies; the study also employed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and logistic regression analysis of the results. This study employed a review of literature on the policies in place that govern water access, use and quality in South Africa. The socio-demographic results from the study show that the respondents were mostly females; with the mean age of 58, and only a few of the respondents were classified as youth between the ages 18-40. The findings revealed that there are policies in place that govern water access and use, and quality. However, the findings show that there are no policies that are specific to water access, use and quality in urban agriculture. Moreover, it was found that there are guidelines relating to water quality as urban farmers have been found to use WW due to the water shortages in cities. To cover the shortfall, the farmers, use other sources of water such as rainwater, river, dam and wastewater. The results on farmer perception revealed that the majority of the farmers were not open to using WW even though they were aware of its use in agriculture. The findings further revealed that the respondents are somewhat aware of the risk factors in UA and how they impact their income generating capacity. It was found that factors such as age, education, water quality, entrepreneurial risk factors like (production risk and price risk) and psychological capital, were found to be statistically significant and have the potential to influence the risk factors of the respondents and subsequently increase urban agriculture participation ultimately leading to increased incomes. The study results also show that majority of the respondents were farming to ensure food and nutrition security at a household level due to food and economic hardships, while only a few of the participants were farming to sell at the market. Even with those who were selling at the market, they found that the costs outweighed the benefits and were somewhat not motivated. The study, therefore, concluded that farmers need more information on the safe use of WW in agriculture. There is also a need for the farmers to develop their risk awareness in UA, and how to better manage the risk. Enhanced risk management strategies will ensure continued income generation and also invoke the “entrepreneurial spirit” necessary to become a successful entrepreneur. The study further concludes that youth involvement in UA is essential as the majority of the participants were elderly, who are mostly subsistent farmers, while young farmers weren’t motivated enough to go into agriculture. Key words: urban agriculture, entrepreneurial risk, water polices, water quality, food security, principal component analysis, entrepreneurship, logit regression.
An assessment of household food security in urban and peri-urban areas : a case study of Bindura Municipal area, Mashonaland central, Zimbabwe.
(2015) Muzah, Onismo.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
Urban household food security is gradually being recognised as a developmental challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, in general, and in Zimbabwe, in particular. The increase in the prices of food and high unemployment in Zimbabwe has made it difficult for the population, particularly for the urban poor, to meet their food requirements. This has affected the livelihoods patterns of the poor staying in urban and peri-urban areas. There are many complex reasons which make households food insecure. Poverty is mainly the driving factor due to lack of resources to purchase or procure food at household level. Poverty, combined with other socioeconomic and political problems, creates the bulk of food insecurity problems in urban and peri-urban areas. This study aimed to contribute to a better understanding of the nature and dynamics of urban and peri- urban household food security in Zimbabwe. The first objective of this study explored urban household livelihoods in Bindura Municipal area (Zimbabwe), by describing livelihood patterns, coping strategies and distinguishing between food secure and insecure households, using descriptive statistics. The second objective investigated the determinants of household food security among urban and peri-urban households. Lastly, the study evaluated the extent of urban and peri-urban household food security, by looking into their nutritional security and how this affects their welfare. Purposive sampling technique was employed to select 200 households in Bindura Municipal area. A structured questionnaire using multiple HFS measurement tools were used in this study, including Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), Household Dietary Diversity (HDD) and Coping strategy Index (CSI). The ordered probit regression model was used for assessing determinants of household food security, using the HFIAS as the depended variable. The results revealed that educational level, occupation, household expenditure on nonfood items, marital status and gender significantly affect household food security. The Tobit model was used to measure the extent of households’ nutritional security, using HDD as an indicator of food security. The results indicate that educational level, occupation and household expenditure positively influenced household dietary diversity and sources of vegetables negatively influenced household food security. This study concluded that urban farming has the potential for increasing household food security; and that; the government in collaboration with local authorities, should develop policies that improve access to land, particularly in peri-urban areas.
Assessment of the contribution of smallholder agriculture to rural household food security in Sekhukhune District, Limpopo Province.
(2017) Mvelase, Lungile Pearl Sindiswa.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
While South Africa appears to meet its national food requirements, access to food at household level remains a challenge for 14.3 million South Africans. Paradoxically, the majority of households with inadequate or severely inadequate access to food are smallholder farmers in rural areas. The study assessed the contribution of smallholder agriculture to rural household food security in Sekhukhune district of Limpopo province. The study employed only quantitative research data collection. Data collection was through a random sample of 175 respondents in five localities in Sekhukhune district. A structured questionnaire was administered through face-to-face interviews. The study utilized the sustainable livelihoods framework to explore the smallholder agriculture and food security nexus. A logit regression model estimated the socio-economic factors affecting household involvement in agriculture. The results suggest that market access, land ownership, gender, education, age, and household size had statistically significant effects on household involvement in agriculture. The food security status of households in Sekhukhune District was determined using the Household Dietary Diversity Score. According to the score classification, about 54.9% households were food secure while 45.1% were food insecure. A higher percentage of households practising agriculture were food secure (62%) compared to non-farming households (50%). The study then employed a Tobit model to estimate the demographic variables that determine the food security status of households. The results suggest that age, non-farm income, social grants, access to market, agriculture involvement and livestock ownership had a statistically significant impact on household food security. The study concludes that smallholder agricultural production alone is insufficient to propel households out of poverty and food insecurity. Other livelihood strategies are required to complement smallholder agriculture. Resource-poor agricultural producers only realize limited success in generating income from farming activities. The study recommends improvement of agricultural producer support services to incentivize farmers and to address identified constraints such as the costs of agricultural inputs and access to land and markets.
An assessment of the impact of food access on children on the nutrition supplementation programme to combat protein-energy malnutrition.
(2014) Tshabalala, Zanele Prudence.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Maliwichi, Lucy.
There is an increasing prevalence of food insecurity in South African households, especially in poverty stricken communities. Evidence suggests that children living in households that are food insecure will be subject to undesirable consequences, including poor quality diets and poor health outcomes, resulting in protein-energy malnutrition. Food insecurity, which is often perceived to be the same as food insufficiency, is one of the many underlying causes of malnutrition. Nevertheless, food and nutritional security seem to be a challenge not only in South Africa but in the world at large. The challenge is further exacerbated by the absence of proper tools to measure food insecurity and food insufficiency. In trying to address the two situations, the government developed a Nutrition Supplementation Programme (NSP). The impact of food access (food security) on children registered in the NSP was investigated together with the relationship between nutrition and food security. A mixed methodology was used to collect data including a questionnaire, focus group discussions, anthropometry and key informant interviews. The questionnaire included demographic information, child food insecurity access scale (CFIAS), household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS), household dietary diversity score (HDDS), months of adequate household food provisioning (MAHFP) and a 24-hour recall. The majority (71%) of children and households (52%) were food secure. Energy foods were the main type of food consumed by children compared to other types of food. The top five most consumed food types in the households were cereals (98%), fats and oil (91%), sugar (89%), vegetables (86%) and (86%) spices. The findings showed that more children in the age group from 7-24 months were severely wasted than in any of the other age groups but this age group also contained the highest number of children that had normal weight-for-height. Sixty three percent of children had normal weight-for-height, 29% were severely wasted and 8% were overweight and/or obese. It was found that the NSP is only partially effective in that it only addresses acute malnutrition (wasting) and does not have strategies in place to prevent its recipient’s from relapsing after their six month period on the programme. The programme has more threats, weaknesses, and challenges than opportunities and strengths. It managed to correct the nutritional status of 63% (n= 86) of children who were part of this study. The findings of this study further prove that there is no association between food access (FA) and nutritional security (NS), meaning that food security does not automatically translate to nutritional security. The study also showed that using multiple tools in combination with measuring FS and NS was advantageous as it counterbalanced the deficiencies of a single tool, thereby allowing multiple perspectives to be extracted from the results. The study therefore recommends that the drivers, risks and the interventions put in place to alleviate food and nutritional security should be carefully investigated. To gain a better understanding of food and nutritional security and their complexities will require further research. Linkages with other government departments such as; Department of Social Development, Department of Home Affairs and Department of Agriculture should be revived and strengthened since there are a variety of causes of malnutrition. Finally, there is an opportunity to develop new and improved measurements of food security. When researchers develop new or improve existing tools, they need to consider the fact that food security is complex with many factors influencing it.

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