Browsing by Author "Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard."
Now showing 1 - 19 of 19
Results Per Page
Sort Options
Item An analysis of municipal solid waste management in South Africa using the Msunduzi Municipality as a case study.(2009) Naidoo, Kaminee.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Municipal Solid Waste generation has become an inevitable consequence of lifestyles and daily living. However, the nature (quantity and quality) of this waste stream can vary and is largely dependent upon the manner in which waste production is managed, by both government and the public. The increasing practices of littering, dumping and burning of solid waste by households (and industries though not extensively dealt with in this study) in South Africa has led to the finding that municipal solid waste is being irresponsibly managed. In this regard, it becomes necessary to investigate the attitudes and behaviour of individuals and households toward solid waste practices, which further include mitigating measures such as reduction, reuse and recycling for the generation of solid waste. The role of the South African government in providing a refuse removal and safe disposal service to all citizens is suggestive of the responsible role of government to ensure that solid waste is being effectively managed by all sectors of society. The aims of this study in light of the above were to review the municipal solid waste policies and strategies of local government authorities in South Africa, highlighting the shortcomings and discrepancies that exist between legislative policies and actual management practices; which is also reflective of the attitudes and approaches to solid waste management by households. This was achieved by focusing on the case study of the Msunduzi Municipality and included investigations into socio-economic and cultural influences on solid waste disposal practices. The objectives of the study were achieved by means of a questionnaire survey that elicited specific responses from 650 sampled households in five suburbs of differing socio-economic status. A further analysis to identify the nature of household municipal solid waste for landfilling from three suburbs of differing socio-economic status was conducted by categorizing 25 tons of garbage at the New England Road Landfill Site, leading to inferences about consumer purchasing power and disposal practices. Further, key personnel in the Msunduzi Municipality’s waste management division were interviewed to ascertain the solid waste challenges faced at local municipal and national levels of government. The study revealed several significant findings of which the most important is that the implementation of South Africa’s national municipal solid waste legislation policies and strategies are inconsistent with local government practices and procedures; thus compromising equity, efficiency, effectiveness and the sustainability of municipal solid waste disposal. Factors contributing to this are shown to be inadequate management and service delivery. The research has shown that monitoring and control systems which purported to ensure environmental sustainability are lacking and inadequately address issues where the implementation of municipal solid waste regulations are in contravention with national solid waste policies. The outcomes of the questionnaire survey and the assessment of household municipal solid waste for landfilling reveal that socio-economic status and culture do in fact influence the nature of solid waste and the disposal methods used by residents. The receptiveness of households towards adopting suggested municipal solid waste disposal practices was also investigated. The non-compliance of residents with municipal solid waste legislation and policies points towards a lack of monitoring and control measures, thereby not providing for a sustained and adequate service delivery which is environmentally sound. The research further suggests that all sectors of the South African public and the government are inadequately informed in terms of aspects of municipal solid waste. This has led the researcher to recommend that further education and awareness campaigns and its role in environmental sustainability are needed so that a sharing of responsibility between government and the public can be effected to aid municipal solid waste management in the country. It is argued that the insight into the roles of socio-economic status and cultural influences over solid waste practices provide a platform from which municipal authorities can work to specifically address the problems associated with municipal solid waste at a community level. It is the task of the national government to ensure that South Africa’s municipal solid waste is being responsibly managed at the local municipal levels so that the health and safety of the environment and its citizens are suitably addressed, hence the focusing on solid waste legislation and national policies (which have been recognized internationally as being environmentally sound and sustainable) must be translated in terms that local municipalities can adopt, assuming that they have been sufficiently empowered in terms of both knowledge and adequate budgeting.Item An analysis of the impacts of human activities and management strategies on wetland processes in southern Zimbabwe.(2015) Marambanyika, Thomas.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems in the world, as they provide benefits to humans and the environment. Despite their value, wetlands are being degraded at an unprecedented rate. Whilst explanations have been sought from natural and human perspectives, the debate surrounding wetland loss continues, and wetland loss remains a problem, especially in developing countries. A number of strategies on wetland use and management have been developed and implemented at various scales in response to wetland degradation and loss, although spatio-temporal variations were noted, as were varying levels of success, shown to be influenced by differences in existing land use, institutional structures and wetland hydrogeomorphic types. Whilst several studies focusing on specific facets of wetlands have been conducted in Zimbabwe, so far none have been carried out to document the impacts of various land uses and management strategies on wetland conditions. The present study therefore assessed the spatio-temporal impacts of human activities and related management strategies on wetland processes in six wetlands located in three rural districts in the southern part of Zimbabwe so as to address this knowledge deficit. To achieve the objectives of the study, changing land use patterns in wetlands were assessed for the period between 1985 and 2013 from aerial photographs and RapidEye images; and the benefits derived by surrounding communities determined, complemented by information obtained from household surveys with 123 respondents. Results show that there was no major change in land use as cultivation dominated throughout and increased by only 7.7% between 1985 and 2013. This result prompted the need to assess the impact of cultivation on wetland biophysical conditions (hydrology, geomorphology and vegetation) using the WET-Health framework. Results show that not all, but some cultivation methods negatively affected the present hydrological state of the wetlands. It was observed that broad ridges and broad furrows and concrete canals were largely responsible for drying. Vegetation structure and composition has been seriously modified by cultivation as evident in invasion by non-wetland species. In order to understand how management strategies influenced use and conservation of wetlands, the study used stakeholders’ perceptions to investigate the effectiveness of existing institutional arrangements in regulating wetland protection. The results show that the degree of wetland protection depends on the number, frequency and relations of institutions operating at each site. Although government departments, traditional leaders, wetland committees and non-governmental organizations participated, generally there was no uniformity in the existing institutional structures at each wetland. Conflicts and discord were sometimes apparent between institutions due to divergent institutional mandates torn between socio-economic and environmental considerations. Traditional leaders and wetland committees were present at each site and where they were effectively involved, wetlands were better conserved as shown by their ecological conditions with little evidence of soil erosion and hydrological alterations as in the case of Chebvuterambatemwa, Dufuya, Madigane and Tugwi. The study further investigated the gap between policy and practice, especially in light of the new legal dispensation which encourage wise use of wetlands, dating back to 2003. The results show that most of the people (61.8%) were not aware of national wetland law; hence there was a disjuncture between legal provisions and practical implementation resulting in little impact on wetland conservation. Poor implementation of national wetland law may be ascribed to a number of socio-economic factors and institutional challenges. The results of the study further showed that in better conserved wetlands, such as Chebvuterambatemwa, Dufuya and Tugwi, effective soil and water conservation measures were in place and their implementation was effectively monitored by local institutions. Food security of most households adjacent to these wetlands was stable. Overall, the findings of this study highlighted the importance of understanding the effects of cultivation and related institutional arrangements and policy frameworks on wetland conservation. The study demonstrates the need to adopt a holistic, people-centered approach in wetland management that also considers the environment. The results further provide insights for Zimbabwe to shift towards an integrated approach, to facilitate effective and sustainable utilization of wetlands. It is in this context that this research provides baseline information that can be utilized in the formulation of wetland resources management frameworks based on an understanding of the interaction between anthropogenic, socio-economic and ecological processes.Item An analysis of the potential erosional changes in the KwaZulu-Natal coastline due to the effects of sea level rise and associated storm surges.(2015) Riddlle, Lyndon Paul.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.The coastlines around the world are currently in the process of being eroded by naturally occurring oceanic conditions. The vast majority of people living near or on these coastlines have no idea what they may be in store for them, with a notable exception being the coastline of the Netherlands. The aim of this research is to understand which areas on the KwaZulu-Natal coastline may be affected by the occurrence of sea level rise including the effects of future storm surges at various time intervals. The coastline is eroded continuously due to the cyclic movement of tides, waves and winds, however the most significant erosion events are likely to occur due to the combination of sea level rise and storm surges, as these both extend further inland and reach higher altitudes than the day-to-day processes of coastal erosion. The storm surge that occurred on the East Coast of South Africa in March 2007 was therefore used as a reference for storm surge as a means of comparing and modelling future storm surge events. While there is some controversy, literature suggests that the mean annual sea level rise occurs at a rate of some 15.5mm per year, although some researchers argue in favour of a rate of almost twice that. The year 2100 was used as the target date to replicate the worst case scenario storm event, but without accounting for a potential increase in the storm intensity driven by global warming.. Coastal protection infrastructures have been installed in some areas, but have been found not to work effectively, occasionally even exacerbating the effects of erosion. Results suggested that by 2100, the sea level rise alone would not have had much of an effect as it is projected to rise by an average of 2m. When this is, however, coupled with a storm surge threshold of 3.5m, most of the study sites along the KZN coastline would experience significant flooding and associated destruction. The research is of a hypothetical origin and the predictions may or may not occur. If the hypothesis would have to be correct, then the planning for prevention methods may be too late. Thus this research must be considered as new information to assist with coastal management. If the projection into the future is taken to include replication of an event with the intensity equivalent to that of the March 2007 event, flooding may reach as high as 10m with catastrophic social and economic consequences. Only time and judicious forward planning with a re-think of the Coastal Zone Management Act will alleviate problems in the future.Item Assessing soil erosion associated with main roads in south-eastern South Africa.(2014) Seutloali, Khoboso.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Construction of linear infrastructure such as roads is increasing worldwide for the provision of efficient transportation of both humans and commodities. However, roads have been widely recognised as significant causes of increased soil erosion due to their influence on the hydrologic and geomorphic processes through the modification of natural hill-slope profiles, the construction of cut and fill embankments as well as impervious road surfaces that concentrate runoff. Accelerated soil erosion due to roads is of particular concern since the associated environmental impacts have economic ramifications related to water treatment and soil rehabilitation. In the light of the above, a better understanding of road-related soil erosion is required to guide environmentally sustainable future developments and erosion control efforts. The present study assesses soil erosion associated with main tar roads in the south-eastern region of South Africa. The first part of the study provides an overview of the linkages of roads with soil erosion by water, related structural designs that facilitate soil erosion processes as well as available approaches for assessing road-related soil erosion and the available erosion control techniques. Secondly, the study focuses on exploring the characteristics (i.e. gradient, length, and vegetation cover) of degraded and non-degraded roadcuts with a view to understanding why some roadcuts are degraded while others are not. Moreover, the study investigates the relationship between the characteristics of the roadcuts and the dimensions (i.e. width and depth) of the rills. Results show that degraded roadcuts are steeper, longer and have a lower percentage of vegetation cover when compared to non-degraded roadcuts. The results further show that there is a significant relationship between the width and depth of the rills, and the slope gradient and percentage of vegetation cover of the roadcuts. These results prompted the need to evaluate the volume of soil loss, using rill dimensions on roadcuts as well as an assessment of the relationship between the volume of soil loss and the soil properties. Results show that soil loss correlates significantly with all the rill dimensions, and the rill depth is the foremost variable in calculating rill volume than the rill width and length. In addition, the results show that there is a significant relationship between the volume of soil loss and the soil properties of the roadcuts. The study further used remotely sensed data to assess gully erosion related to road drainage release and examined the relationship between physical and climatic factors (i.e. road contributing surface area, vegetation cover, hillslope gradient and rainfall) and the volume of gullies. The results indicate that the road contributing surface area, vegetation cover and hillslope gradient have a significant contribution and influence on the size of the gullies along major armoured roads. Moreover, the results show that remote sensing technologies have the capability to investigate road-related gully erosion where detailed field work remains a challenge due to economic and time constraints. Finally, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of soil erosion control methods along the roads, the study investigates the performance of different soil erosion control methods utilised on the roadcuts. It was observed that most of the slope stabilisation methods are successful in controlling soil erosion while the majority of drainage control methods performed poorly. The results show that good performance is related to vegetation re-establishment, while poor performance may be attributed to improper application, lack of inspection and maintenance. Overall, the study provides an understanding of erosion related to the post construction phase of roads. In this regard, it is expected that the results of this study will contribute to the management of roads from the soil erosion perspective through appropriate interaction with the South African National Roads Authority (SANRAL). It is hoped that this work will lay the foundation for environmentally sustainable road construction, maintenance and the formulation of effective soil erosion control measures in the future.Item Community action in the management of community forests in Swaziland: the case of Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms.(2018) Singwane, Saico Sibusiso.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.It is evident that community action is indispensable in order to attain sustainable management of community resources in general and particularly community forests, as well as to control land degradation. In Swaziland however, the examination of factors behind fruitful community action is quite recent, hence there is a paucity of published documents on this subject. Therefore the aim of the research presented here was to assess the role of community action in the management of community forests in Swaziland using the Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms as case studies. The study focused on the following issues: 1) the management of community resources by internal and external stakeholders; 2) the rules governing the management of forest resources and the manner in which the derived benefits are utilized and distributed, and 3) the extent of community action in the management of community resources. The research has also provided a critical review of the opportunities and threats associated with community action in the management of community forests, the extent of community forest resource utilization, and the nature and extent of land degradation associated with such resource utilization. Data were collected by selecting and interviewing respondents who comprised internal and external stakeholders. The internal stakeholders included 300 heads of households (100 from Ngcayini and 200 from Ezikhotheni), eight members of the community inner council, comprising the headman, three inner council members and three ward elders from each chiefdom), six Natural Resource Management Committee members (three from each chiefdom), as well as the Individual chiefdom councillors (Bucopho) at Ngcayini and Ezikhotheni chiefdoms as case studies. Notably, sampling was only done at Ezikhotheni where 200 out of 500 homesteads selected using simple random sampling. Regardless of the number of households in a homestead, only one head of household was interviewed. External stakeholders included four officers in the Forestry Section of the Ministry Tourism and Environmental Affairs (MTEA); four officers of the Swaziland Environment Authority (SEA); the Livelihoods Manager for World Vision; and the Director of Environment for Conserve Swaziland. Considering that the study involves the views and opinions of human beings as the key subjects, ethical clearance was solicited through the University of KwaZulu-Natal Ethics Committee (protocol reference number HSS/0729/017D). The research findings indicate that access to forest resources is free in natural forests, yet in plantation-style community forests it is controlled by traditional authorities and Natural Resource Management Committees (NRMCs). Resources extracted from plantation-style community forests are sold to community members, and the proceeds are then used to fulfil the needs of the community concerned. For instance, at Ngcayini the proceeds fund community leaders when attending royal duties and buy a royal kraal stamp and its accessories as indicated by 37% of the heads of households and 100% of the community leaders. At Ezikhotheni they financed a water project and support neighbourhood care points according to 6% of the heads of households and 18.2% of the community leaders. In terms of the management of community forests, both internal and external stakeholders relied on a number of strategies. For instance, both males and females indiscriminately engaged in planting, pruning, mending fences, making and maintaining fire breaks and harvesting forest products. Moreover, the findings reveal that there was generally community-wide cooperation from ordinary community members to community leaders in the management of community forests. Nonetheless, such cooperation was challenged by issues such as chieftaincy disputes, prevailing poverty issues and rapid population growth. In the management of community forests, the Ezikhotheni and Ngcayini chiefdoms collaborated with a range of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), government departments and parastatals. Nevertheless, such collaborations were fraught with benefits and challenges. Furthermore, there are elaborate rules governing the management of community forests in the specific chiefdoms studied (90% Ezikhotheni and 88% at Ngcayini). The rules are formulated by all community members and enforced by community leaders. Despite the elaborate rules, there are challenges of illegal burning and harvesting of resources, as well as the theft of fence materials surrounding the forests and gullies. Nonetheless, perpetrators are generally exposed and reprimanded through levying of fines. In addition, community members indicated knowledge of national policies and legislation relating to the management of community forests. On another note, community action appeared to be embraced more extensively at the Ezikhotheni than at the Ngcayini chiefdoms. In spite of this, community action in both chiefdoms was fraught with both opportunities and threats. Regarding land degradation, the findings highlighted that erosion in the form of gullying was active and advancing from 2.14 hectares in 2008 to 2.59 hectares in 2017 at Ngcayini, whereas at Ezikhotheni it was diminishing from 9.78 hectares in 2008 to 9.37 hectares in 2017 due to successful rehabilitation following the planting of trees. Plantation-style community forests were generally increasing from 2008 to 2017 in both chiefdoms (4.48 to 7.15 hectares at Ezikhotheni and 0.35 to 0.48 hectares at Ngcayini), signalling the effectiveness of the afforestation intervention and a success of community action in the management of community forests. Moreover, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) also depicts a general increase from 2008 to 2017 in both chiefdoms (0.34 to 0.43 at Ezikhotheni and 0.33 to 0.56 at Ngcayini); which too is indicative of the effectiveness of the afforestation intervention and the success of community action in the management of community forests.Item Developing key success criteria for rural development initiatives in the context of sustainable land management.(2013) Nkomo, S'phumelele Lucky.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.An assessment of service delivery in rural areas is critical in understanding the impacts and extent of sustainable land management (SLM). It has been South Africa’s main objective to improve and speed-up service delivery to eradicate poverty in rural areas as indicated in the 1994 constitution. Statistics and field surveys indicate that, despite apartheid having ended in 1994, grassroots development in remote rural areas is still poor, often due to weak service delivery. This situation has in turn resulted in increased pressure on the natural resources leading to severe deforestation and overgrazing, soil erosion and surface water degradation. To achieve sustainable land management, it is critical to ensure that services are disseminated to rural communities because this will reduce pressure on natural resources. The aim of this study is to provide an assessment of the state of development as measured by the effectiveness of current service delivery in the south eastern part of South Africa and its implications for sustainable land management. The results of the study indicate that there is a strong relationship between poor service delivery and SLM problems in rural areas. The underdeveloped rural areas with poor service delivery demonstrated high levels of land degradation as compared to areas with better service delivery. In this study four communities (i.e. Mangoloaneng, Mahohoho, Njane and Mazabekweni Central) were assessed. Two of the communities under study were developed (Njane and Mazabekweni Central) and the others were underdeveloped. World Overview of Conversation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) field guide manual was used to assess the level of land degradation associated with poor service delivery in each community. Results indicate that Mangoloaneng and Mahohoho communities have poor service delivery compared to Njane and Mazabekweni Central. The results indicate the 88% of people from Mangoloaneng and Mahohoho rely on unclean water from unprotected sources such as streams, rivers, wells or springs for domestic use. Residents from these two communities have no access to electricity, proper sanitation facilities and also live in mud houses which are shown to be susceptible to extreme weather events. Moreover, infrastructural access to these communities is very difficult, due to bad road conditions. The study has established that there is a strong relationship between poor service delivery and SLM problems in rural areas. In order to achieve sustainable development in rural areas, it is therefore important to have clearly defined criteria which can be used as a base for rural development. The study identified the following services as key criteria for rural development; clean piped water, sustainable housing and sanitation facilities, well maintained roads, electricity provision and schools (primary and secondary).Item The dynamics of urban water service delivery capacity and the implications for household food security in Gweru, Zimbabwe.(2016) Kusena, Winmore.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Water is a resource on which all human activities, in both rural and urban environments, are anchored. Due to limited social security in developing countries and associated challenges, water is relied upon directly, and heavily, for food security. Several studies focusing on the relationship between water and agriculture have been conducted mostly in rural areas of Zimbabwe. Whilst the water and food relationship was historically associated with rural settings in Zimbabwe, the urban environments are now increasingly identifying with the relationship for survival due to national economic underperformance. Currently, no research has focused on the dynamics of domestic water service delivery system and the implications for household food security in urban areas. Research has been turning ‘a blind eye’ to the effects of reported water shortages and water affairs on household food security in Zimbabwean cities. In view of this, the present study assessed the urban water service delivery system and its implications on household food security in Gweru, the fourth largest city of Zimbabwe. Therefore, the capacity of Gweru municipality to supply water to citizens was assessed. Capacities investigated were the availability of water at source as well as the municipality’s financial, human and infrastructural capacities to supply water to citizens. The findings revealed that the city had sufficient raw water at source to supply the city. Nonetheless, the infrastructural capacity to pump water to the city was limited. Financial incapacity was identified as the major drawback that crippled the system in terms of both adequate human resources and infrastructure development in the city. Results revealed that the municipality was further financially incapacitated by water debt cancellation that was implemented in the year 2013. The shortfall between supply and demand was assessed. Using World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines on recommended per capita water per person, results showed a significant differ This situation prompted the researcher to investigate the role that water users were playing in the incapacitated system in order to optimise the limited resources. Adequacy of user participation in the water supply system was assessed using a perception study. Results show that despite all the incapacities, the service provider was not capitalising on working with residents in order to maximise conserving the available resources. Gweru municipality and the city’s residents had poor communication. This perpetuated a tendency of non-compliance with water conservation and demand management strategies as respondents felt disregarded. The municipality was seen as dictatorial, imposing decisions to do with water rationing and revenue collection on residents mutatis mutandis, without adequate consultation and notices. It was in the context of the limited water supply and demand management capacities, the widening supply and demand gap as well as inadequate user participation that household food security was assessed. Results show that municipality’s efforts to continue providing service sometimes led to serious cost recovery and revenue collection that culminated in excessively high bills and serious follow up on payment that, in most cases, led to disconnections. Residents suffered water cuts and reduced food production prospects from their gardens due to plant wilting. The study further revealed that the municipality allowed backyard farming irrigation, but then capitalised on increased bills that were mostly based on estimates. The high monthly bills also crippled the residents’ food buying power, making them more vulnerable to food insecurity. The municipality imposed decisions that make the utility fulfil its mandate of supplying water at the expense of the intended beneficiary, the user. The results show that the measures taken by Gweru city council seriously compromise household food security. The study further assessed the coping strategies that were devised by respondents and civil society groups to counter water shortages and water related household food insecurity. Results reveal that respondents embarked on both legal and illegal strategies for survival. Due to inherent poor communication between the authority and residents, most of the coping strategies devised by respondents, such as self reconnection to water supplies, exhibited deviant behaviours due to lack of options, further increasing the amount of non-revenue water consumed. Twenty two percent of respondents demonstrated their willingness to cooperate with the municipality through payment plans, although 18% of them revealed the ineffectiveness of the option since bills continued to increase. In order to cushion the residents from water shortages and food insecurity, civil society rolled out boreholes and community garden projects in the city. The findings of this study demonstrate the importance of capacity building and development in the water service delivery sector. The study highlights the need for stakeholder engagement, in a bid to optimise resource utilisation amid limited capacities. The findings of the study further show the importance of people-centred approaches in resource management in order to achieve sustainability. Lack of an integrated approach in water service delivery in Gweru led to more disgruntled and vulnerable citizenry that perceives hegemony and prejudice. The findings have demonstrated that lack of engagement breeds an environment that counteracts a conservation ethos, as citizens defend their spaces for survival. The research findings can supply a baseline of information for the formulation of city by-laws and national policies on urban water and household food security.Item The effects of unpaved access roads on runoff and associated water quality within the Seele Estate, New Hanover, South Africa.(2011) Seutloali, Khoboso.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Unpaved forestry roads can significantly affect surface runoff and sediment production, with consequential impacts for stream water quality. The potential impact of road runoff on stream water quality is mitigated by the redistribution of runoff into the forest compartments through road drains. The objective of this study was to assess runoff and the associated nutrient loads from unpaved forest access roads, and to evaluate the effectiveness of road runoff redistribution onto the forest compartments. Unpaved road segments in Mondi Forest Plantation in Seele Estate, New Hanover, South Africa were instrumented for runoff measurement in response to natural rainfall. Two road segment classes were investigated for water quality from unbounded runoff plots: steep sloped road segments of road gradients of 9.5° and 7.5°, and gentle sloped road segments of road gradients of 1.6° and 2.0°. Water quality was also assessed by monitoring road runoff, and stream water quality was analysed for water quality parameters including; pH, Nitrates, Nitrites, Phosphates, Total dissolved Oxygen, Oxygen consumption, Ammonium and temperature upstream and downstream of the Estate. The effectiveness of road runoff redistribution into the forest compartments was evaluated through relating water distribution to tree breast height diameter. Two sets of road drains corresponding to the plots of different road gradients were selected as for runoff, and sampled, and corresponding plots or allotments were established to determine tree breast height diameter measurements. The results of the study revealed that, as might have been expected, runoff production increases with the increasing road gradient. The quality of road runoff water was lower than the stream water. There were no significant differences observed in nutrient levels upstream and downstream of the road stream crossings. The nutrient concentrations however, were higher upstream of the estate than downstream. Significant differences in tree breast height diameter were noted between plots of different road gradients. This suggested that the gradient determines the infiltration of redistributed runoff and hence the availability of the water that can be used by the trees within a compartment. The results of the study suggest that unpaved roads are important in the generation of nutrient loads. Much of the nutrient value is redistributed within the compartment itself rather than being transferred to the stream. This suggests that, provided that road runoff can be contained within the compartments, the potentially negative impact of road runoff can be mitigated and may enhance tree growth.Item Geomorphic considerations in the deterioration of rural roads : the case of Inkandla, Indwedwe and Ga-Modjadji.(2003) Khandlhela, Nkhensani.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.The condition of the rural road network in South Africa is in a severe state of deterioration and remains a matter of concern for inhabitants of rural areas. Apart from heavy use, the main problem is that road development is often neglected and the main focus is placed on the geomorphic environment. The objective of this study is to identify the nature of the geomorphic constraints of vehicular access on unarmoured roads in the rural areas of KwaZulu Natal and the Limpopo Province of South Africa, and to gain a better understanding of how these function. It is hoped that some of the insights gained can then be used to inform policy decisions regarding the location and design of rural roads in the future. In this study, a number of unarmoured roads were studied in detail to identify the possible environmental constraints on vehicular access. A number of soil physical and chemical properties were used to examine the state of road degradation. These properties included particle size analysis, soil strength, Cation Exchangeable Capacity and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage. The results of the investigation of soil properties have shown that they play a significant role in road degradation. The major geomorphic factors involved in road deterioration include soil type, soil erosion and precipitation characteristics, mass movements, slope conditions and human activity. The physical characteristics, especially the soil and slope conditions, make the access roads in all study areas susceptible to soil loss. Factors such as geology, drainage and friable soils vulnerable to mass movements have been identified as seriously constraining vehicular access. Soil erosion problems in the study area are largely the result of physical and chemical properties of soils combined with steep gradients and have been identified as the primary cause of road degradation. It was further found that the socio-economic conditions, together with the anthropogenic influences such as the construction of rural access roads on vulnerable slopes, population density and the removal of vegetation cover in all the study areas have significantly enhanced road deterioration.Item Geomorphological aspects of veld burning in Golden Gate Highlands National Park, South Africa.(1996) Bird, Jessica Caroline Margaret.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.First is widely used as veld management tool in a wilderness areas such as Golden gate Highlands Park. A wealth of literature exists regarding the effect of burning vegetation but few studies but few studies address the fire on soil geomorphology. The study aimed at determining the effect of fire on soil properties of soil and soil erosion processes. Fifteen of runoff plots were installed at Golden Gates Highlands National Park on slopes varying aspect and gradient and were subject to different burn treatments i.e. winter, spring and non- burnt. The following were investigated to determine if fire had influence in erodiblity, infiltration rate, organic matter content, and aggregate stability. The intensity of grassland fires is general not sufficiency to affect soil properties especially if the burn take place under favourable under favourable conditions. Despite the poor rain received during the study period enough event were recorded to establish trends. Winter burning increases sendiment yield and runoff compare to spring burning and the control non-burn treatment. These results were incorporated into proposed burn policy for golden gate Highlands National Park.Item The geomorphology of wetlands in the upper Mooi River catchment, KwaZulu-Natal.(2001) Longmore, Jennifer Lyn.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Wetlands are now recognized as being an integral component of the physical landscape. Geomorphology has recently been recognised by wetland scientists as being of fundamental importance in wetland genesis, maintenance and evolution, thereby providing the context for informed, effective wetland management and conservation. At present there exists a paucity of geomorphological wetland research in South Africa. A hydro-geomorphic approach was adopted to attain an understanding of wetland genesis, distribution and functioning of a range of different palustrine wetland systems in the upper Mooi-River Catchment of KwaZulu-Natal. The physical, chemical and landscape-morphological characteristics of wetland soils were investigated to interpret the processes operating within those wetland systems. Both field and laboratory work suggest that wetland creation and maintenance in the upper Mooi River catchment may be attributed primarily to climatic factors, landscape position, landform and geological characteristics. These factors were found to cumulatively control the hydrological characteristics of wetlands, which impart an important influence on internal wetland conditions. While soil properties do not appear to be a primary factor in the establishment of these wetlands, they are nevertheless found to be important in the regulation of the hydrological dynamics of wetland systems. The close interdependence between wetlands and the surrounding landscape and the hydrological cycle is evident in the wetland systems investigated. Geomorphic processes within wetlands such as overbank flooding, overland flow, sedimentation, piping, leaching, soil swelling, shrinkage and cracking and channel incision and dynamics were found to be important variables in determining the nature and internal characteristics of wetland systems. In several of the systems investigated, all of the above mentioned processes were operative, while in other systems, a number of these processes were either insignificant or absent. Canonical Variate Analysis indicated that while commonalities exist between the palustrine wetland systems investigated in this study, significant differences were found between different groups. This supports the argument that a subclassification of the palustrine system into five different palustrine wetland types is warranted. While the scope of the present research did not allow for an extensive investigation of suitable methods of rehabilitation, the study suggests that an understanding of geomorphic process and wetland dynamics will be beneficial to wetland management and conservation as a whole.Item Integrated conservation-development : a geographical analysis of policy and practice in northern Maputaland.(2001) Curry, Megan Sumner.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.The thesis examines the genesis and implementation of integrated conservation development and associated projects in northern Maputaland during the 1980s and 1990s. The premise upon which this study is based is that there has been a worldwide paradigmatic shift in conservation policies and practices during the 1980s and 1990s. The extent to which initiatives in Maputaland reflected these trends is examined. In formulating a conceptual and theoretical framework for the study, the developments within the discipline of geography as well as the paradigmatic shifts within the broader sphere of conservation and development thinking, are discussed. Traditionally geography focuses on the nature of the relationship between human beings and their environment. Working within this tradition, the relationship between geography and conservation policy and practice is identified and applied to South Africa. Analysis of the process of integrating conservation and development in Maputaland is informed by both the broader international debate surrounding conservation and development and by local history and place specific conditions. The key geographical concepts of process and place are viewed as interdependent factors influencing one another. Within this framework and drawing on the concept of sustainable development, the experience of implementing the new conservation paradigm in Maputaland is recorded and analysed. The case study examples are associated with Ndumo Game Reserve. Sources of data and methodologies include primary sources (published books and journals), secondary sources (unpublished reports), participant-as-observer status with conservation liaison committees and the Ndumo Environmental Education Centre, key informant and focus group interviews and Participatory Rural Appraisal with the Ndumo Environmental Education Centre Management Committee. The study indicates that the Maputaland initiative did represent a considerable paradigm shift in the conservation policies guiding the general practice of conservation in Maputaland. The conservation agency did attempt to initiate Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDPs) during the 1990s, but this has been a complex process, fraught with tensions and suspicions. The practise fell short of the ideals and there is a long road to be travelled before reconciliation between conservation and community development is reached.Item An investigation into the nature of gully erosion at Golden Gate Highlands National Park.(1993) Brady, Helen Mary.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.The general aim of this study was to gain an insight into the nature of gully erosion at Golden Gate Highlands National Park. In order to achieve this the spatial and temporal characteristics of six gullies were investigated by examining their typological and morphological characteristics, the relationship between their morphometric properties and their increase in extent over a 39 year period (1952-1991). Where possible these findings and observed gully forms were related to initiating factors. Extensive field surveys and measurements were carried out to ascertain the typological and morphological characteristics of each gully. The results of the field measurements were then statistically analyzed using linear regression analysis, principal component analysis and canonical variate analysis. These methods of analysis were used to get an indication of the relationships taht exist between the morphometric properties of the gullies as well as to highlight the similarities and differences that exist between them. These results showed that the morphometric varaibles of the gullies are strongly interrelated. Furthermore they revealed that the six gullies could be divided into three broad groups on the basis of their morphometric and sediment properties. The gullies within two of the three groups were found to be similar not only in terms of the above mentioned but they also occur on same facing slopes of similar gradients and appear to have been initiated by similar processes. Differences occurring within and between the gully groups were attributed to varying combinations of initiating factors. Aerial photographs from 1952 and 1984 were used together with surverys to map the extent and development of five of the six gullies - teh remainign gully was only initiated in 1988. The 1952 and 1984 photographs were selected as they represented the earleist and most recent photographs to be taken of the area. The maps show the gullies to have experienced a greater amount of growth during the 1984 - 1991 period than during the 1952 - 1984 period. This finding was attributed to the sporadic nature of gully growth. The spatial location of the gullies in relation to one another appears to have had little influence on their typological and morphological characteristics. However, their spatial location within the landscape has undoubtedly influenced these properties. In general the research described has shown that the spatial and temporal differences of the gullies occurring in the park are the result of various combinations of endogenous and exogenous factors that governed the initiation and development of each gully.Item Land use change as a contributing factor to sedimentation rates in the Hazelmere Catchment, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.(2002) Read, Nicola Ann.; Hill, Trevor Raymond.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.Hazelmere Dam situated on the Mdloti River in KwaZulu-Natal has, since its completion in 1977, lost 25 % of its original design capacity through sedimentation. This storage loss has brought about an environmental concern as well as a socio -economic threat to the region. The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of land use change on the sedimentation rate in the catchment. This was undertaken to obtain a better understanding of the processes and leads towards an integrated catchment management strategy. Geographical information systems afforded the opportunity to determine land use change from a number of sequential land use maps and to run statistical analyses and overlays. It was determined that a large change in land use had taken place between subsistence cultivation/small-scale agriculture and subsistence grazing. The rainfall, soil and slope conditions cause the catchment to have a naturally high erosion potential. As a result of the interrelated nature of all these factors in the catchment the most effective manner in which to deal with the sedimentation problem is through a multidisciplinary approach such as is afforded by integrated catchment management strategies. In terms of controlling the sedimentation problem in the Hazelmere Dam recommendations concerning conservation practices necessary in minimising the impact of the land use practices and changes are made for inclusion in such a management approach.Item Rates and controls of footpath erosion in Giant's Castle Game Reserve, KwaZulu / Natal Drakensberg.(1995) Sumner, Paul Douglas.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.The Drakensberg is an important ecological and recreational resource area within southern Africa, yet little knowledge exists concerning the factors controlling soil erosion in the region. The two most important anthropogenic modifiers of natural erosion processes in the areas beyond the: Drakensberg Park main camps and access roads are vegetation burning and the erosion associated with footpaths. This dissertation investigates the rates and controls of footpath erosion in Giant's Castle Game Reserve in the KwaZulu/Natal Drakensberg. Two measurement techniques are employed. Sediment yield and runoff were monitored from six runoff plots installed on different gradients on a high user-intensity footpath. Runoff is found to increase linearly with increasing footpath gradient. Sediment yield increases gradually with increasing footpath gradient to a threshold path gradient of 13.36°, after which sediment yield increases rapidly. Soil eroded from the runoff plots has a finer particle size distribution than the footpath tread surfaces within the plots. Rates of sediment generated from the runoff plots is dependant on the rainfall intensity index (I60), as opposed to rainfall kinetic energy or total rainfall related indices, while runoff is dependant on the El60 index. A 100m point-based survey of footpath attributes, totalling a distance of21km along four paths in the Reserve was undertaken. Where footpath gradients are low and user-intensity is high, path morphometry is dependant on orientation to the slope. Morphology of footpaths with both higher gradients and user-intensities show a dependence on path gradient. The degree of compaction of the footpath tread decreases away from the main camp and is positively related to user-intensity. Multiple path development is. associated with the path width to maximum depth ratios and a threshold ratio range of 4. 0 I to 4. 50 is established for the initiation of secondary path routes. A comparison of the survey data with a survey conducted in 1989 indicate erosion rates between 3.24 and 13. 0 tons/km/a over a four year period. Erosion rates for the runoff plots and for the surveys indicate that the values obtained for the two techniques of measurement utilised in the study approximate each other. Path erosion rates, while still presenting a prnblem, are not uncharacteristically high in Giant's Castle. Game Reserve in comparison to the scarce data available on rates of path erosion within and beyond southern Africa.Item Sources of soil erosion in the Hazelmere catchment KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.(2002) Myeza, Celani Thokozani.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.; Hill, Trevor Raymond.Sedimentation of reservoirs is of major concern, particularly in South Africa where water resources are scarce. When a reservoir is filled with sediments, it is not only the water storage capacity which is reduced but the reservoir site could be lost. An investigation into the sources of sediment that pose a threat to the economic life of the Hazelmere Dam, located on the Mdloti River, was undertaken with a view to determining the extent to which siltation problems within the catchment may be attributed to soil characteristics as opposed to being related to other factors such as potential land use practices. The study determined that soils of the catchment are naturally prone to erosion. From particle size analysis, it is evident that these soils are highly erodible, whereas chemical analysis suggest that some of these soils are dispersive. Soil erosion does not necessarily develop as a direct consequence of a single variable such as soil chemistry nor of soil physical properties only, but is multivariate in nature and may be associated with a combination of factors. Using the factors of slope, land use, geological type and rainfall, an erosion risk or hazard map of the Hazelmere catchment has been produced. The actual erodibility of soil as determined by the Eijkelkamp rainfall simulator was then compared to this risk map. It is evident that there is a relationship between soil loss and soil erosion risk. Furthermore, results of soil loss and land use showed that there is a relationship between the two factors, a similar relationship existed between land use and soil erosion risk where soil erosion risk increased with grazing and cultivation land uses. This study has mainly focused on the scientific and technical aspects concerning the sources of sediment. However, it has also shown that some of the contributing factors and barriers to adequate soil conservation are related to socio-economic and socio-political factors.Item Spatial and temporal aspects of soil erosion in Mt Ayliff and Mt Frere, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.(2000) Madikizela, Primrose Nomawethu Thomzana.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.This study is concerned with the physical and human causes of soil. erosion. Some quantitative information on the magnitude of soil erosion for different ecoregions in South Africa is available. However, such quantitative data is available only from a few sites. One objective of this thesis is to add to the existing data. Site specific data is provided for the two study areas in the Eastern Cape Province, namely, Chani area in Mt Frere and Brooks Nek area in Mt Ayliff. A comparison is made between the physical and chemical characteristics of the soils found in both study areas. The spatial and temporal extent of the erosion problem is also given. Another major objective is to evaluate the soil rehabilitation measures used at these two areas. An evaluation of the relevance and efficiency of the erosion control measures is made. (For gully erosion especially, the present study provides an evaluation of the suitability and effectiveness of the gully control mechanisms adopted.) Most importantly, a third objective of this study is to investigate the awareness and attitudes of the members of the communities affected by the erosion problem. Among the many different factors found to be important in the causal nexus that results >f in soil erosion, it has been found that many of the problems originate from social causes, like that of too large a population for the limited available resources. Added to this, factors like poor development programmes, bad agricultural practices, bad road management, have exacerbated the erosion problem. In other words, from research and interviews conducted in the study areas, erosion problems linked to recent political policies; to farming and to other practices were found to be associated, inter alia, with the shortage of land, unemployment, the lack of the necessary farming equipment, overgrazing and so on. To stress the point, the five important factors contributing to erosion were identified as an over exploitation of the land resource for basic needs, bad road management, floods, drought, and concentrated flow on furrows made by both on and off-road vehicles. We noted that another important feature of this thesis is to give an account of the psychological attitudes of individuals living near the areas affected by erosion, Respondents to interviews and to questionnaires generally agree that there has been a lot of change in their natural and man-made environments, especially in terms of gully development and vegetation reduction. However, there is a disturbing level of ignorance concerning the causes and consequences of erosion. When asked to estimate the date of gully initiation in Brooks Nek, for instance, none of the respondents could give even rough estimates or a specific incident leading to the current dominant erosion problem. The general attitude towards the problem in their midst was one of indifference. The general belief is that erosion is caused not by themselves but by natural phenomena. Further, most respondents thought it is someone else's (e.g. government's) responsibility to ameliorate the harmful consequences associated with land deterioration and soil loss. The data for this thesis have been obtained through surveying the landscape directly over a three-year period (1994-6), and by using aerial photographs for 1982 (Mt Frere site) and 1993 (Mt Ayliff site). Detailed analysis was undertaken of chemical and physical characteristics of soil at both sites. In addition, quantitative and qualitative surveys of people in the area were attempted; to ascertain their understanding and contribution to the problem. The implications, as shown from the results of this investigation, are that the soil erosion problem at both study areas are largely independent of soil characteristics. On the contrary, this study will show that human practices are the major initial causes for soil erosion in all the cases investigated. It was found that over the years, the land use practices in both sites have changed significantly. Factors accelerating the development of erosion forms at Brooks Nek, for instance, include the footpaths and stock trails. In contrast, artificial contouring and poor gabion layout are the major causes in Chani. However, it must be mentioned that it is not always easy to separate the effects of human from natural causes. Once the effects of human activities exceed the optimum limits of soil resistance and resilience, erosion starts. Then erosion acceleration will not necessarily be confined to the original cause(s). Natural storms and floods, or even drought will contribute in accelerating the erosion rates.Item Subsurface soil erosion phenomena in Transkei and southern KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa.(1996) Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.; Fincham, Robert John.Subsurface erosion forms has been regarded as a unique exception to the more common surficial erosion forms such as rills and gullies, and have therefore been viewed as being of little consequence consequence for the total annual soil loss within any given region. A total of 148 subsurface erosion system occurring at 66 sites in Southern KwaZulu-Natal and Transkei were analysed morphologically to determine the significance of subsurface erosion within this region, to assess the extent to which the observed phenomena may be explained by current theories. Based on morphological criteria related to the dimensions of the subsurface erosion phenomena, it has been shown that there are five distinct -subsurface erosion systems namely scree slope systems; gully- sidewall systems; anthropogenically induced systems; system associated dispersive soils, seepage systems. It was further found that, under certain circumstances, the sediment lost through surficial erosion can be increased 77% by subsurface erosion and the subsurface erosion is spacially to particular slope units which are defined on the basis of the dominant geomorphic processes. Although soil chemistry, in particular dispersion related to the exchangeable Sodium percentage and the Sodium Absorption Ratio, is an important factor in facilitating subsurface erosion, other factors are also important as scree slope systems for example occur in soils which are completely non-dispersive. It has been possible to demonstrate that there is a statistically' significant correspondence between the spatial orientation of inter-ped surfaces the orientation of bedrock joints. This correspondence has enabled the explanation of how the well documented phenomenon of structurally controlled drainage basins may develop._ This correspondence has enabled the explanation of how well documented phenomenon of structurally controlled drainage basins may develop.Item Sustainable agriculture among subsistence farmers in Swaziland : a study of adoption and practice of conservation agriculture at Shewula.(2015) Mlipha, Mandla.; Beckedahl, Heinrich Reinhard.The study comprises five separate but related research papers intended to document the introduction and adoption of conservation agriculture in Swaziland and the status of crop cultivation in this country. It further provides empirical evidence on adoption and performance of conservation agriculture in improving the soil production capacity. The study was conducted at Shewula in Swaziland and employed a mixed methodological approach that included literature review, questionnaire interviews (survey), focus group discussions and laboratory analysis of soil samples. Ethical clearance was acquired from the institution’s ethical clearance committee which approved all the instruments for data collection used in the study. Moreover, the candidate made an undertaking to hide identities of all respondents that were interviewed during the study. The study investigated the prospects and challenges of adoption of conservation agriculture and established that there were high prospects for the adoption of conservation agriculture. It also established that farmers were cultivating traditional crops while intercropping was the paramount crop cultivation pattern which was viewed as significant to facilitate the adoption of conservation agriculture in the country. The study of the level and pattern of adoption of conservation agriculture revealed a very low adoption level of the system since only about 5% of the farmers were practicing the system more than 10 years after its introduction to the area. Adoption level varied with the socio-economic context of the farmers and was mainly on an experimental basis. The influence of basic conservation agricultural practices on soil moisture and organic matter content revealed that some farmers were able to achieve the requisite minimum soil cover of 30% though problems of crop residue management were observed. Moreover, levels of moisture and organic matter content were significantly higher in soils under the system than those under conventional farming. The study concluded that conservation agriculture has a positive influence on retention of soil moisture and organic matter content not only for organised agriculture (where this is well documented), but also at the level of the subsistence farmer. A comparative analysis of soil pH and levels of nutrient content in the soil under conservation agriculture and conventional farming did not reveal significance different between the two farming systems. The soils were generally acidic with an average pH of 5.0 while the Student t test performed indicated that the difference between the two farming systems in terms of nutrient content levels was not significant (p > 0.005, df. at 18). Although the pH and nutrient content levels did not show significant differences between the two farming systems, however, the levels were slightly higher in the soil under conservation agriculture. The study argues that cconservation agriculture has the potential to stabilize soil pH and to improve nutrient content, and the observed lackluster performance of the system to have higher nutrient content compared to conventional farming is attributed to improper management of soil cover and crop residue. This leads to the conclusion that compelling factors exist in facilitating the adoption of the system in Swaziland especially along the conservation agriculture awareness project focus and other information emerging from the study, centered largely around a conflation of the principles of conservation agriculture, and the use of indigenous seed strains. However, there are still challenges pertaining to particular aspects of conservation agriculture especially retention of crop residue which raises questions about the current animal husbandry practices.