Influence of land cover degradation on the water balance of the Northern Drakensberg high altitude mesic grasslands, South Africa.
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Date
2022
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Abstract
Mountainous regions provide vital ecosystem services, such as water provisions to low land
areas. However, these regions are also considered sensitive to the effects of environmental
change, due to their high levels of endemism and biodiversity. Thus, environmental change
within these regions could have significant consequences beyond the extent of the region itself.
An important implication of environmental change is the impact a change in land cover could
have on the water balance of a catchment, especially within the headwater catchments.
The Drakensberg mountains in South Africa, is such a mountain region, which is vital for its
provision of ecosystem services and generation of water resources. This mountainous region is
under threat from anthropogenic environmental change. The Drakensberg mountain range has
been identified within South Africa as a strategic water source area (SWSA) and within the
Northern-Drakensberg SWSA exists the Maloti-Drakensberg Park, which is a protected area
managed by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and a World Heritage site. The Northern-Drakensberg
mountain range natural grasslands are under threat from two forms of land cover change
degradation, that of woody encroachment and following disturbance, invasion of bracken fern.
Woody encroachment occurs within the natural grasslands following the removal of fire, which
is of concern within the protected areas, where fire is a current management tool to maintain
the natural grassland cover. Outside the protected area, disturbances due to human activities
such as overgrazing and poor land management have led to a substantial level of degradation
occurring, providing ideal conditions for the invasion of bracken fern.
To safeguard and maintain the assurance of supply from an important SWSA of South
Africa, there is the need for improved understanding on the impacts of land cover change and
degradation within the Northern-Drakensberg mountain range on the water balance of the
region. Thus, the overall aim of this thesis is to understand the influence of land cover change
related degradation on the water balance of the Northern-Drakensberg high-altitude mesic
grasslands and what this in turn means for the water supply generated from this SWSA of South
Africa. To achieve the main aim, the research was scaled from a point measurement to a basin
scale where management decisions are made.
To improve our understanding of the impact of degradation related land cover change on the
water balance an observational approach is required. Located within the Maloti-Drakensberg
Park is the long-term Cathedral Peak research catchments which provided the platform for the
observation component of this research. Of interest in the Cathedral Peak research catchments were three hydrologically individual catchments. Catchment III which consists of a degraded
bracken fern land cover following the historical research experiments within the catchment on
the impacts of commercial Pinus patula plantation on streamflow. Despite rehabilitation efforts
following the removal of the plantation, the catchment transitioned to a degraded state and is
currently near-completely invaded with bracken fern. Catchment VI which is under natural
grassland condition, is managed with a bi-annual spring burn as proven best practice within the
Drakensberg region. This catchment formed the baseline catchment for this research.
Catchment IX is a woody encroached land cover following the protection of fire since the 1950s
as part of research into the implications of removing fire from the natural grasslands. These
three catchments provided the ideal platform from which the change in water balance
components under each land cover could be monitored and investigated.
The process of evapotranspiration (ET), which forms the connection between the energy and
water balances, is well understood to be one of the most affected components of the water
balance following a change of land cover. Therefore, ET was the focus of the initial point
observation research. Due to the cost and stringency of the prominent method for ET
measurement of eddy covariance (EC), an alternative more financially feasible method of
surface renewal (SR) was tested over both Leucosidea sericea (woody) and Pteridium
aquilinum (bracken) vegetation in comparison to EC. It was determined that the SR method,
and in particular the SR dissipation theory (SRDT) method, which is independent of EC, was
the best alternative and cheapest method to EC. The SR method is now used within the
Cathedral Peak research catchments for long-term estimations of ET over both vegetation
canopies. During this research, calibration factors (α) for the surface renewal 1 (SR1) method
were determined for both the Leucosidea sericea (woody) and Pteridium aquilinum (bracken)
vegetation types for winter and summer.
Having confirmed the SRDT ability as an alternative to EC, the seasonal ET of Leucosidea
sericea (woody) and Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) was determined. Providing first insight
into the seasonality of ET over these vegetation types. Both vegetations followed a similar
seasonal ET cycle to the natural grasslands, with the largest difference occurring in winter when
the grasslands become dormant. It was also found that the energy balance was altered under the
degraded land covers, with both forms increasing available energy and latent heat flux.
Following the understanding of the seasonal change in ET through point measurements, the
research focus was scaled up to the research catchment. A comparison of catchment VI and IX
was conducted to identify changes in the headwater catchment water balance between the natural grassland and woody encroachment land covers. Long-term data sets of precipitation
and streamflow from the Cathedral Peak research catchments, in combination with the seasonal
ET observations showed that over time, as woody encroachment increased, the catchment
rainfall:runoff response ratio decreased, as did streamflow under woody encroachment
compared to natural grassland.
Having gained an understanding of the impacts on a water balance of a headwater catchment,
hydrological modelling in combination with scenario analysis was used to understand the
impacts on water supply from the upper-uThukela catchment were both land cover degradation
threats left unmanaged. Land cover parameters were unavailable for Leucosidea sericea
(woody) and Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), and therefore were derived from understanding
gained during observation. The ACRU agrohydrological model was utilised and confirmed to
simulate current land cover conditions within the upper-uThukela satisfactorily at both the
headwater and catchment levels. It was identified that both forms of land cover change resulted
in a reduction in streamflow. This was largest for woody encroachment. The most affected
flows were the low flows and winter dry period flows. Headwater catchments were also
identified as the most impacted by land cover change.
The key conclusions of the research were:
• that the surface renewal methodology is a viable alternative for obtaining estimates
of evapotranspiration over indigenous vegetation types;
• that the energy balance and ET of woody vegetation in comparison to the natural
grassland was significantly altered;
• the importance of fire, as not only a management tool for the maintenance of the
natural grasslands, but also to ensure the sustainability of the vital water resources
and ensuring water security;
• that there is an evident lag between the onset of degradation in the form of woody
encroachment and the resultant impacts on streamflow;
• the disproportionally large impact degradation related land cover change within these headwater catchments has on the downstream water balance relative to low
land catchments.
Following the analysis and with the understanding gained, it is recommended that the natural
grasslands continue to be managed using fire, and continued protection of the natural grasslands
needs to be maintained. Observation within these headwaters is key to improving the
understanding of change and to drive decision making, allowing for the optimal management
of the important SWSA.
Description
Doctoral Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.