Breeding bambara groundnut (vigna subterranea (L.) verdc) for enhanced yield and nutritional quality in South Africa = Ukukhiqiza Amantongomane ohlobo lwe-Bambara (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) ukuze uthole Isivuno Esithuthukisiwe kanye Nekhwalithi Yokudla Okunempilo eNingizimu Afrikha.

Abstract

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.; 2n= 2x = 22) is a nutrient-dense grain legume cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Asia. The current food systems in tropical and subtropical regions depend on the cultivation and use of a few commodity crop species. This causes most indigenous crop species, such as Bambara groundnut, to remain neglected by researchers and underutilised in the value chains. Underutilised crop species have received limited research and development attention from researchers and policymakers, and hence, their economic value, production methods, seed enterprises, product development and commercialisation are not yet fully explored. Due to a lack of systematic genetic improvement, the yield of most underutilised crops is low (<0.85 ton ha-1) and stagnant. Unlocking Bambara groundnut’s economic and value-adding potential as an essential multipurpose food and cash crop will enhance food and nutritional security in developing countries. Research on Bambara groundnut in South Africa is relatively peripheral and there are no known improved varieties of this crop with high yield and nutritional quality. Therefore, specific objectives of this study were: (1) to document the progress made on Bambara groundnut production, utilisation and genetic improvement in SSA to discern the key production constraints, genetic resources and analysis, breeding methods and gains on yield and nutrition to guide breeding; (2) to assess them genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI) effect on grain yield and to select best adapted Bambara groundnut genotypes in South African target production areas for breeding; (3) to determine the compositions of phytochemicals and mineral elements present in Bambara groundnut genetic pool to identify superior and contrasting genotypes to guide product development and breeding; (4) to determine the magnitude of the genetic diversity and population structure of Bambara groundnut collections of South Africa using high throughput single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) markers to complement phenotypic and nutrition profile data for genotype selection and breeding; and (5) to determine the combining ability effects and gene action conditioning yield and related traits in Bambara groundnut genotypes to identify the best combiner donor parents and progenies for genetic advancement, cultivar development and release. The first part of the study reviewed progress on Bambara groundnut production, utilisation and genetic improvement in SSA. The study presented key production constraints, genetic resources and analysis, breeding methods and genetic gains on yield and nutritional quality. Modern crop management, production technologies, and value chains are yet to be developed in Africa to achieve economic gains from Bambara groundnut production and marketing. Improved crop management and post-harvest handling technologies, modern varieties with high yield and nutritional quality, value addition and market access are among the key considerations in current and future Bambara groundnut research and development programs. Information presented will guide sustainable production and effective crop breeding to pursue food and nutrition security and improved livelihoods through Bambara groundnut enterprises. In the second chapter of the study, 75 Bambara groundnut genotypes were evaluated across seven selected environments using a 5 x 15 alpha lattice design with three replications. The study revealed significant (p<0.05) differences among genotypes (G), environments (E) and GEI effects on grain yield. A high proportion of the observed variation was due to GEI (36.62%), followed by environment (35.63%) and genotype (24.16%) effects. Grain yield across environments ranged from 1.4 ton ha-1 for ARC Bamb-68 to 0.10 ton ha-1 for ARC Bamb-74. Genotype ARC Bamb-68 (0.96 ton ha-1), ARC Bamb-9 (0.88 ton ha-1) and ARC Bamb-54 (0.84 ton ha-1) attained the highest grain yield across locations, while ARC Bamb-74 exhibited the lowest grain yield of 0.16 ton ha-1. The genotype and genotype-by-environment biplot identified ARC Bamb-17, ARC Bamb-14, ARC Bamb-20, ARC Bamb-18, ARC Bamb-14, and ARC Bamb-26 as the most stable genotypes across locations, while ARC Bamb-18 and ARC Bamb-54 were specifically adapted to Loskop and Brits. The Mafikeng site was ideal for Bambara groundnut evaluation, genotype differentiation, and large-scale seed production. The selected genotypes with high grain yields and stability are valuable genetic resources as breeding parents for Bambara groundnut improvement in South Africa. In the third chapter of the study, 75 genetically diverse Bambara groundnut genotypes were field evaluated across four environments using a 15 x 5 alpha lattice design with three replications during the 2020-2021 cropping season. Genotypes were profiled for fat, phenolic and flavonoids contents at the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) analytical laboratory in South Africa. Further, the genotypes were assessed for the contents of the following minerals: calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), zinc (Zn) and nitrogen (N). The nutritional content of the test genotypes varied significantly (P<0.05), which were affected by the genotype and environment interactions. The Ca, Fe, K and Zn content varied from 150.70 to 216.53, 4.30 to 16.77, 771.99 to 1155.89 and 5.50 to 7.17 mg.100 g−1 dry seed sample, respectively. Genotypes, including ARC Bamb-2, ARC Bamb-19, ARC Bamb-73, ARC Bamb-56, ARC Bamb-37, ARC Bamb-3 and ARC Bamb-69 exhibited the highest fat content (>6.00 %). ARC Bamb-40 and ARC Bamb-59 recorded a higher mean Fe content of 16.00 mg.100 g−1. ARC Bamb-2 was the top-performing genotype with high fat content (6%), Ca (211.93 mg.100 g−1), and Zn (7.17 mg.100 g−1 ). Ca, K, and N contents displayed strong correlations (r>0.60, P<0.05). Phosphorus and Zn contents exhibited moderate correlations with Ca. Overall, the study selected genotypes ARC Bamb-73, ARC Bamb-19, ARC Bamb-9 and ARC Bamb-2 with high compositions of essential nutrients for product development or breeding. The selected genetic resources are valuable for trait integration and developing new breeding populations with enhanced nutrient compositions and agronomic and market-preferred traits. In the fourth part of the study, the magnitude of the genetic diversity and population structure of South Africa Bambara groundnut collections was determined using high throughput single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) markers. Ninety-three genotypes were genotyped with 2286 SNP markers and phenotyped with some unique complementary morpho-agronomic traits of the crop. The mean genetic diversity value was 0.32, revealing moderate genetic differences among the assessed genotypes. Cluster and structure analyses grouped the tested genotypes into two distinct categories. Further, the analysis of molecular variance partitioned the total genetic variation into among genotypes (90%), within genotypes (8%) and among populations (2%). The results revealed two heterotic groups for hybridisation and selection programs. The following unique genotypes were selected: ARC Bamb-37 (with spreading growth type), ARC Bamb-49 (bunch type), ARC Bamb-61 (semi-bunch) and ARC Bamb-83 (spreading) using the SNP markers and desirable agronomic traits. The study provided new insight on Bambara groundnut genetic profiles of South African collections, which will assist in conservation strategy and management of the crop for effective breeding. The final part of the study assessed combining ability effects and gene action conditioning yield and related traits in Bambara groundnut genotypes to identify the best combiner donor parents and progenies for genetic advancement and breeding. Ten contrasting parents were selected and crossedusing a 10 × 10 half-diallel mating design, and 45 progenies developed. The progenies and their parents were field evaluated using a 5 × 11 alpha lattice design with two replications in two contrasting locations in South Africa. Data was collected on agronomic traits and subjected to statistical analyses to compute genetic parameters. Genotype × location interaction effect was significant (P < 0.05) for the studied agronomic traits. General combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) effects were significant in most assessed agronomic traits, including yield per plant. The GCA × location and SCA × location interaction effects were significant for most traits. A Baker’s ratio of < 1 were recorded for most assessed traits, indicating the preponderance of non-additive gene effects conditioning the traits. The parental lines such as ARC Bamb-25, ARC Bamb-8 and ARC Bamb-55 recorded positive and desirable GCA effects for yield per plant. The progenies ARC25×ARC8, ARC44×ARC9 and ARC6×ARC9 had desirable SCA effects for yield per plant, ARC44×ARC8, ARC44×ARC68, ARC42×ARC8 for higher number of secondary branches per stem, ARC25 ×ARC8 for early maturity, ARC42×ARC55 for higher number of pods per plant and ARC42 ×ARC57 for increased seed width. The new families selected in the current study are useful breeding populations and will be subjected to selection and multilocation evaluation to release the best-performing varieties. Overall, the present study appraised the present production constraints, genetic resources and analysis, breeding methods and genetic gains on yield and nutritional quality to guide future breeding. Moreover, new Bambara groundnut breeding populations were developed with enhanced yield and nutritional compositions for genetic advancement and multilocation selection for variety release and adoption in South Africa.

Iqoqa.

Amakinati ohlobo lweBambara (i-Vigna subterranea (L.) i-Verdc.; 2n= 2x = 22) ingqukuva yohlamvu olugcwele umsoco olutshalwa phakathi nasezansi ne-Afrikha, e-Afrikha engezansi kwe-Sahara (SSA) kanye nase-Asia. Izinqubo zokudla zamanje ezifundeni ezishisayo kanye nezifudumele zincike ekulimeni kanye nasekusebenziseni izinhlobo ezimbalwa zesivuno esidliwayo. Lokhu kubanga izinhlobo eziningi zesivuno zendabuko, ezifana namakinati ohlobo lweBambara, ukuthi ahlale enganakwa ngabacwaningi futhi angasetshenziswa ngokulindelekile ukudluliseleka kubathengi. Izinhlobo zesivuno esingasetshenziswa ngokulindelekile zithole ukucwaningwa okungenele kanye nokunakekelwa kokuthuthukiswa kubacwaningi kanye nakubaqambi migomo, futhi okuholela ekutheni ubungako bomnotho, izindlela zokukhiqiza, amabhizinisi embewu, ukuthuthukisa umkhiqizo kanye nokuthengiseka akukaphenywa ngokuphelele. Ngengxa yokungabibikho kokuthuthuka kwendabuko elandelelekayo, umphumela wesivuno esingasetshenziswa ngokulindelekile uphansi (<0.85 ton ha-1) futhi awunyakazi. Ukuvula umnotho kanye nokubaluleka okwengezwa amakinati ohlobo lweBambara njengokudla okusemqoka okunezinhloso eziningi kanye nesivuno semali kuzokhulisa ukudla kanye nokulondolozeka komsonco emazweni asathuthuka. Ucwaningo ngamakinati ohlobo lweBambara eNingizimu Afrikha luncane kakhulu futhi azikho izinhlobo ezithuthukile ezaziwayo zalesi sivuno ezinomphumela ophezulu nobunjalo bomsoco. Ngakho-ke, izinhloso ezithile zalolu cwaningo kwaku-: (1) ukushicilela inqubeko eyenziwe yomkhiqizo wamakinati ohlobo lweBambara, ukusetshenziswa kanye nokuthuthukiswa kohlobo eSSA ukwehlukanisa izingqinamba zomkhiqizo ezinqala, umsuka wokuhlobana kanye nokuhlaziya, izindlela zokwandisa kanye nenzuzo ngemiphulela kanye nomsoco ukuklama indlela eya phambili ukwandisa; (2) ukuhlola umphumela wokuxhumana ngokohlobo lwendawo, i-genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI) emiphumelweni yezinhlamvu kanye nokukhatha izinhlobo zamakinati ohlobo lweBambara esivumelana nendawo eNingizimu Afrikha ngokubheka ngqo izindawo zomkhiqizo ukwandisa; (3) ukuhlonza ukuhleleka kwamakhemikhali ezitshalo kanye nezinhlaka zamaminerali ezikhona emthamweni wohlobo lwamakinati ohlobo lweBambara ukukhomba izinhlobo ezidlondlobele futhi eziphikisanayo ukuhlelela ukuthuthuka komkhiqizo kanye nokuwandisa; (4) ukuhlonza ubungako bomehluko wohlobo kanye nohlaka lohlobo lwamaqoqo amakinati ohlobo lweBambara aseNingizimu Afrikha ngokusebenzisa inani elilodwa eliphezulu lezakhi zemisuka eziphindaphindiwe, i-single nucleotide pleomorphisms (SNP) ukusebenzisana kweminingo yokuhlukaniseka okubonakalayo kanye nomsoco ukukhetha uhlobo kanye nokwandisa; kanye (5) nokuhlonza imiphumela yokukwazi ukuhlanganisa kanye nomsebenzi wofuzo oveza umphumela kanye nezinkomba ezihlobene ezinhlotsheni zamakinati ohlobo lweBambara ukukhomba uhlobo olungcono kakhulu lwabazali abangahlanganiswa kanye nenzalo ukuthuthukisa uhlobo lofuzo, ukuthuthukisa kokulima kanye nokukhishwa. Ingxenye yokuqala yocwaningo ibuyekeze inqubeko yokukhiqiza amakinati ohlobo lweBambara, ukusetshenziswa kanye nokuthuthukisa ufuzo e-SSA. Ucwaningo luveze izingqinamba zomkhiqizo ezinqala, umsuka wofuzo kanye nokuhlaziya, izindlela zokwandisa kanye neziphumo zofuzo emiphumeleni kanye nobunjalo bomsoco. Ukwengamela isivuno sesimanje, ubuchwepheshe bokukhiqiza, kanye nokudluliseleka kubathengi kusamele kuthuthukiswe e-Afrikha ukufinyelela emiphumelweni yomnotho emkhiqizweni wamakinati ohlobo lweBambara. Ukwengamela isivuno esithuthukile kanye nobuchwepheshe bokuthwala emva kokuvuna, izinhlobo zesimanje ezinemiphumela ephezulu kanye nezingabunjalo lomsoco, ukwengenza ubungako kanye nokungenekela ezimakethe kungokunye okumele kubukwe ocwaningweni lwamanje nolwesikhathi esizayo lwamakinati ohlobo lweBambara. Ulwazi oluveziwe luzolekelela umkhiqizo ogcinekile kanye nokwandisa isivuno esinomphumela ukuqquqquzela ukudla kanye nokulondolozeka komsoco kanye nokuthuthukisa izimpilo ngamabhizinisi amakinati ohlobo lweBambara. Engxenyeni yesibili yocwaningo, izinhlobo zamakinati ohlobo lweBambara ezingama-75 zahlolwa kuzo zonke izindawo eziyisikhombisa ezikhethiwe kusetshenziswa uhlaka lohlelo oluphezulu lwe-5 x 15 ngokuphindaphindwa kathathu. Ucwaningo luveze umehluko omkhulu (p<0.05) phakathi kwezinhlobo, ama-genotypes (G), izindawo, ama-environments (E) kanye nemiphumela ye-GEI yomphumela wezinhlamvu. Ingxenye ephezulu yomehluko owabonakala kwakungenxa ye-GEI (36.62%), ilandelwe indawo (35.63%) kanye nemiphumela yohlobo (24.16%). Imiphumela yezinhlamvu kuzo zonke izindawo isukela ku-1.4 ton ha-1 we-ARC Bamb-68 kuya ku-0.10 ton ha-1 we-ARC Bamb-74. Uhlobo lwe-ARC Bamb-68 (0.96 ton ha-1), i-ARC Bamb-9 (0.88 ton ha-1) kanye ne-ARC Bamb-54 (0.84 ton ha-1) lwathola umphumela wezinhlamvu omkhulu kuzo zonke izindawo, ngesikhathi i-ARC Bamb-74 iveze umphumela ophansi kakhulu wezinhlamvu we-0.16 ton ha-1. Uhlobo kanye nohlobo ngokwendawo yenhlanganisela yamasampuli amabili lwaveza i-ARC Bamb-17, i-ARC Bamb-14, i-ARC Bamb-20, i-ARC Bamb-18, i-ARC Bamb-14, kanye ne-ARC Bamb-26 njengezinhlobo ezizinzile kakhulu ezindaweni zonke, ngesikhathi i-ARC Bamb-18 kanye ne-ARC Bamb-54 yazinza ngokukhethekile eLoskop kanye naseeBrits. Indawo yaseMafikeng yayikulungele ukuhlola amakinati ohlobo lweBambara, ukuhlukaniseka kohlobo, kanye nokukhiqiza umthamo omkhulu wembewu. Izinhlobo ezikhethekile ezinemiphumela ephezulu yezinhlamvu kanye nokulondolozeka ayimisuka ebalulekile yofuzo njengabazali bokwandisa ukuthuthukisa amakinati ohlobo lweBambara eNingizimu Afrikha. Engxenyeni yesithathi yocwaningo, izinhlobo ezahlukene ngobuhlobo zamakinati ohlobo lweBambara ahlolwa ensimini kuzo zonke izindawo ngokusebenzisa uhlaka lohlelo oluphezulu i-15 x 5 ngokuphindaphindwa ngesikhathi sika-2020-2021 sesikhathi sokuvuna. Izinhlobo zahlukaniswa ngokwamafutha, ubukhona beziyoliso kanye nezakhamzimba ezisamanzi elaborethri yokuhlaziya ye-Agricultural Research Council (ARC) eNingizimu Afrikha. Okunye futhi, izinhlobo zahlolwa ngokuba khona kwalama minerali alandelayo: i-calcium (Ca), i-iron (Fe), i-potassium (K), i-phosphorus (P), i-zinc (Zn) kanye ne-nitrogen (N). Ubukhona bezakhamzimba zezinhlobo ezahlolwa zazehlukile kakhulu (P<0.05), nokwakunomthelela wokuxhumana kohlobo kanye nendawo. Ubukhona be-Ca, i-Fe, i-K kanye ne-Zn kwakuhlukile kusukela ku-150.70 kuya ku-216.53, ku-4.30 kuya ku-16.77, ku-771.99 kuya ku-1155.89 kanye no-5.50 kuya ku-7.17 mg.100 g−1 isampula yembewu eyomile, ngokulandelana kwako. Izinhlobo, okubalwa kuzo i-ARC Bamb-2, i-ARC Bamb-19, i-ARC Bamb-73, i-ARC Bamb-56, i-ARC Bamb-37, i-ARC Bamb-3 kanye ne-ARC Bamb-69 zaveza ubukhona obuphezulu bamafutha (>6.00 %). I-ARC Bamb-40 kanye ne-ARC Bamb-59 yaqopha inani eliphezulu lobukhona be-Fe ka-16.00 mg.100 g−1. I-ARC Bamb-2 yayiwuhlobo oluqukethe ubukhona bamafutha okuphezulu (6%), Ca (211.93 mg.100 g−1), kanye ne-Zn (7.17 mg.100 g−1 ). Ubukhona be-Ca, i-K, kanye ne-N baveza ukuhlobana obuphezulu (r>0.60, P<0.05). Ubukhona be-phosphorus kanye ne-Zn kwaveza ukuhlobana okuphakathi nendawo ne-Ca. Sekukonke, ucwaningo lukhethe izinhlobo ze-ARC Bamb-73, i-ARC Bamb-19, i-ARC Bamb-9 kanye ne-ARC Bamb-2 nezakhiwo eziphezulu zezakhamzimba esisemqoka ukuthuthukisa umkhiqizo noma ukwandisa. Imisuka yofuzo ekhethiweyo ibalulekile ukuhlonza inhlanganisela yenkomba kanye nokuthuthukisa uhlobo olusha lokwandisa nenhlanganisela yezakhamzimba ethuthukile kanye nezinkomba zezenhlabathi kanye nesincanyelwa imakethe. Engxenyeni yesine yocwaningo, umehluko wofuzo omkhulukazi kanye nohlelo lwezinhlobo zamaqoqo amakinati ohlobo lweBambara eNingizimu Afrikha watholakala ngokusebenzisa inani eliphezulu elilodwa lomsuka wezakhi eziningi, (i-single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP)). Izinhlobo ezingamashumi ayisishiyagalolunye nantathu nezakhi ezingama-2286 ze-SNP kanye nezinkomba ezibonakalayo kanye nezinkomba eziyinhlanganisela yomhlabathi ezihambisanayo zesivuno. Imini yomehluko wofuzo wawu-0.32, ukuveza umehluko wofuzo ophakathi nendawo phakathi kwezinhlobo ezahlolwa. Ukuhlaziya uhlobo kanye nohlelo kwaqoqela ndawonye izinhlobo ezihlolwa ngamaqoqo angefani amabili. Okunye futhi, ukuhlaziya kwenhlayiya encanyana kwahlukanisa isamba somehluko wofuzo phakathi kwezinhlobo ezinga-90%, phakathi kwezinhlobo ezinga-8% futhi phakathi kwezinhlobo ezinga-2%. Imiphumela yaveza amaqoqo amabili ahlotshanisiwe ukuhlanganisa ukungefani kanye nezinhlelo zokukhetha. Izinhlobo ezehlukile ezilandelayo zakhethwa: i-ARC Bamb-37 (nohlobo lokukhula okusabalele), i-ARC Bamb-49 (uhlobo lwesixheke), i-ARC Bamb-61 (uhhafu wesicheke) kanye ne-ARC Bamb-83 (esabalalayo) ngokusebenzisa izakhi ze-SNP kanye nezinkomba ezidingakalayo zokwenhlabathi. Ucwaningo lunikeze umbono omusha ngezinhlobo zofuzo lwamakinati ohlobo lweBambara emaqoqweni aseNingizimu Afrikha, ezizolekelela emaswini okulondoloza kanye nokwengamela isivumo ukwandisa okuyimpumelelo. Ingxenye yokugcina yocwaningo ihlole imiphumela yokukwazi ukuhlanganisa kanye nomsebenzi wofuzo olukhipha umphumela kanye nezinkomba ezihlobene zezinhlobo zamakinati ohlobo lweBambara ukuveza inhlanganisela engcono yabazali abanikezelwe kanye nenzalo ukuthuthukisa ufuzo kanye nokwandisa. Abazali abayishumi abaphikisanayo bakhethwa baphanjaniswa ngokusebenzisa uhlaka lokuzalanisa oluwuhhafu ngokuhambisana ngo-10 x 10, futhi inzalo engama-45 yakhiqizwa. Inzalo kanye nabazali kwahlolwa ensimini ngokusebenzisa uhlaka lohlelo olukhulu ngo-5 x 11 ngokuphindaphinda okubili ezindaweni eziphikisanayo ezimbili eNingizimu Afrikha. Imininingo yaqoqwa ezinkonjeni zokwenhlabathi futhi kwamele zihlaziywe ngezinombolo ukuqopha imikhawuko yofuzo. Umphumela wokuxhumana kohlobo x indawo waba mukhulu ngo-(P < 0.05) ezinkombeni zokwenhlabathi ezacwaningwa. Ukukwazi ukuhlanganisa okwejwayelekile, (i-General combining ability (GCA)) kanye nemiphumela yokukwazi ukuhlanganisa okukhethekile, (i-specific combining ability (SCA)) yaba mikhulu ezinkonjenu eziningi ezahlolwa zokwenhlabathi, okubalwa kuyo umphumela ngesitshalo. I-GCA x indawo kanye ne-SCA x miphumela yokuxhumanisa indawo yaba mikhulu ezinkonjeni eziningi. Isilinganiso sika-Baker sika- < 1 saqoshwa ezinkonjeni eziningi ezahlolwa. Imigudu yabazali efana ne-ARC Bamb-25, i-ARC Bamb-8 kanye ne-ARC Bamb-55 yaqopha imiphumela emihle futhi edingakalayo ye-GCA yemiphumela ngesitshalo. Inzalo eyi-ARC25×ARC8, i-ARC44×ARC9 kanye ne-ARC6×ARC9 yaba nemithelela edingakalayo ye-SCA yemiphumela ngesitshalo, i-ARC44×ARC8, i-ARC44×ARC68, i-ARC42×ARC8 yenombolo enkulu yamagatsha aphakathi nendawo ngesiqu, i-ARC25 ×ARC8 yokushesha sithele, i-ARC42×ARC55 yenombolo enkulu exhaphozini ngesitshalo kanye ne-ARC42 ×ARC57 yokwenyuka kobubanzi bembewu. Imindeni emisha eyakhethwa kulolu cwaningo anomsebenzi wokwandisa amaqoqo futhi kumele ikhethwe futhi ihlolelwe izindawo eziningi ukukhipha izinhlobo ezenza kahle kakhulu. Ukugoqa, lolu cwaningo luhlole izingqinamba zomkhiqizo, imisuka yohlobo kanye nokuhlaziya, izindlela zokwandisa kanye nemiphumela yokuhlobana emiphumelweni kanye nobunjalo bomsoco ukuhlahla indlela eya phambili. Okunye futhi, izinhlobo zokwandisa amakinati eBambara ezintsha ziqanjiwe kanye nemiphumela ethuthukisiwe kanye nenhlanganisela yezakhamzimba ukuthuthukisa uhlobo kanye nokukhetha izindawo eziningi ukukhipha okwahlukehlukene kanye nokusetshensiswa eNingizimu Afrikha.