Browsing by Author "Worth, Steven Hugh."

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Agricultural extension and natural resource management in Mozambique with particular reference to Cabo Delgado Province.
(2005) Zaqueu, Flavio Rafael.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
The Agricultural Extension, within the context of Mozambique, is an important force· towards agricultural and rural development. Practically, the agricultural policy and programme of the government is implemented through these services. Mozambique has accepted agriculture as the foundation for the development of the country given that this activity sustains the livelihoods of almost the entire population. Moreover, Mozambique is a potential natural resource country, in where, its potential ranges from terrestrial to marine resources. For the purpose of this study, natural resource management refers mainly to the adequate management of the land, water, forests and wildlife by local communities. These facts imply that if the policy goals of the government are the agricultural and the rural development, than the Agricultural Extension role must be redefined to include promoting natural resource management. A most effective way of redefining this role is through supporting the relationship between agricultural extension and natural resource management. This relationship would provide stakeholders involved in the agricultural development scenario in Mozambique with a clear picture of the environment surrounding the Agricultural Extension service for future sound decisions. The relationship between Agricultural Extension and natural resource management was investigated through a survey conducted with extension workers and farmers in Cabo Delgado province in north of Mozambique. Key informants at district, provincial and national level assisted the study. The survey results are presented as three articles submitted for publication in the South African Journal of Agricultural Extension. It became evident that the relationship between agricultural extension and natural resource management is a prerequisite for agricultural and rural development in Mozambique. Further, several limiting factors adjoined. to the policy framework in agricultural development, Agricultural Extension approaches and farmers behaviour were identified as hampering that relationship, and therefore, need to be shifted or improved.
Agricultural extension, sustainable livelihoods and self-reliance: the case of Illovo's small-scale sugarcane farmer development programme (Noodsberg, South Africa).
(2015) Ndlela, Sithembiso.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Small-scale Sugarcane Grower Development Programmes implemented in rural communities have become very popular in South Africa because sugarcane contributes substantially to both local and national economies. Illovo Sugar has adopted such development programmes with an aim of improving rural livelihood and option and also improving the South African sugar industry. In most cases, however, it appears that sugarcane development programmes are primarily driven by the pressure to meet the demand for sugar which has focused the programmes on developing sugar through small-scale farmers. This study then seeks to investigate and unravel the role that extension could and should play in sugarcane development programmes to refocus such programmes on the farmers (rather than on the commodity), to build their capacity, and to make their livelihoods more sustainable in the face of change and opportunities for improvement. This investigation was conducted with three groups of participants; small-scale sugarcane farmers, extension worker and enablers. Enablers, in the context of this study, refers to stakeholder/s or structure/s involve in making, suggestion of changes and alteration of policies, law and processes that shapes the impact of the Small-scale Sugarcane Grower Development Programme on the programme’s target farmers. In the case of this programme, the enablers are the Illovo development manager and SASRI extension specialist who were selected purposively as key informants of the study. The other participants (including farmers and extension providers) were selected using a Snowball Sampling. Thirty-five farmers participated in this study, sampled on the principle of saturation. The investigation with farmers was carried out using semi-structured interviews as basis for developing themes and focus group discussion for surfacing in-depth data. Semi-structured interview was also employed to gather data from extension workers and enablers. From the perceptions of small-scale sugarcane farmers the study discovered that extension is primarily involved in technology transfer, particularly in the production aspect of the programme. From the perceptions of farmers, extension workers and enablers the study found that the programme is intensively focusing on ensuring that all small-scale farmers supply sugarcane to Illovo at the end of each season. The study determined that the role of extension assumes that, through transferring technology and ensuring technical support, the livelihoods of small-scale farmers will be enhanced and sustained and self-reliance will be achieved. The study also found that the development programme focuses on building farmer knowledge to run the farm and ensure sustainability, but does not facilitate the acquisition of skills by farmers to engage with scientific enquiry. Farmers are given a limited opportunity to participate in all the activities of the programme which jeopardise their chances of being selfreliant in their farming operations. This also has adversely impacted on farmers’ ability to own their development and be accountable for what they achieve. The study essentially found that the programme focuses more on developing the enterprise (sugarcane) through farmers than on building farmer capacity to improve the enterprise while sustaining their livelihoods – which is the antithesis of both theory and intention of development and extension. In the light of this, the study suggest that in the production, finances and marketing aspects of the programme, the role of extension should be extended to engaging farmers in an extension conversation with the aim of building their capacity to engage with scientific enquiry. The agenda for improving farmer capacity can be developed around the idea of advancing farmer skills and knowledge, and creating opportunities within the programme to enhance farmer aptitude. The study further recommends a shift in the programme from technology-oriented toward more farmer-centred development that places farmers in the centre of the programme and encourages farmer participation in all the processes of the development programme. This will include adoption of a learning-based approach that suggests a learning process of investigation, assimilation and sharing to be used by all the role-players (farmers, extension and enablers) in facilitating an intervention relevant to farmers’ livelihood.
An assessment of the appropriateness of agricultural extension education in South Africa.
(2008) Worth, Steven Hugh.; Modi, Albert Thembinkosi.
This thesis is about agricultural extension education. The context is agricultural extension in South Africa. It addresses the following questions: To what extent does current agricultural extension education in South Africa adequately reflect the current and changing educational and developmental imperatives? To what extent does it adequately equip extension officers and other agricultural development practitioners to deliver relevant support to farmers and farming communities? In short, how relevant is the training received by South African Agricultural Extension practitioners? The South African government has made significant changes in the policy environment governing agriculture. While the majority of the policy changes fall outside the scope of this research, it can be safely argued, as noted in the current Strategy for South African Agriculture, that the changes are fundamental. The changes redirect agriculture to the majority population which has hitherto been marginalised and generally denied meaningful access to the agricultural sector of the South African economy. To implement these changes, the agricultural sector will need appropriate skills – skills which, it is submitted – are largely lacking within the agricultural extension service and, more relevantly to this study, in Agricultural Extension curricula. In addition to the foregoing, assumptions about farmers and their roles in technology and information creation and consumption, assumptions about the roles of tertiary institutions in the triad of teaching, extension and research and indeed about the triad itself need to be challenged. A system of education which has its origins in the 1800s (before even the industrial revolution, much less the digital revolution) needs, per force, to be interrogated regularly to ensure that it delivers according to the demands of the exigencies of the time. Similarly, assumptions about the aim of development and in particular agricultural development have been questioned in many parts of the world. And yet it is submitted that in South Africa, the basic extension methodologies have not changed in any fundamental way; rather they have adopted some of the outer trappings of new approaches, without assessing the fundamentals of the core extension approach. It is believed that extension is in need of a serious review and that it is timely to do so. Recent research in Africa and elsewhere in the world indicates that extension needs be reconstructed on a different set of operational objectives led by a different vision. The extension strategy herein presented is built around a vision which places the focus on the farmer (and other land users) in the context not of technology, but of creating prosperity. The vision implies that the purpose of agricultural extension is to facilitate the establishment of self-reliant farmers who are contributing to widespread prosperity. The dual outcomes of self-reliant farmers and widespread prosperity are meant to be realised through a new set of =rules of engagement‘. Prosperity is derived out of farmers working together, sharing information, and learning together. Self-reliant farmers are an outcome of a learning partnership between farmers and extension practitioners. This study was conducted in a series of stages. The first thrust examined the nature of Agricultural Extension and the assumptions on which it is predicated. The result of this interrogation was to propose a new concept for Agricultural Extension – Agriflection – which is a learning-based concept aimed at improving the sustainability of the livelihoods of farmers through iterative development processes fostered through a learning agenda that is facilitated by an appropriately trained Agricultural Extension practitioner. To realise such a vision, it is essential that the mission of the extension service be recast to reflect the dynamics of the implications of the vision. The key elements of the mission are, therefore, client-responsiveness and partnerships. The power to realise the vision rests in three critical aspects. First is the capacity of the extension service to engage with its clients as genuine partners in a shared learning agenda. The second is the capacity of the extension service to engage with the many other agencies and organisations which supply goods and services to farmers and land users. The third is ensuring that engagements with farmers support sustainable development, that is, that production of food, fibre and fuel is socially just, economically sustainable and environmentally sustainable. This new vision and mission lay the foundation for a fundamental shift in the way agricultural extension is positioned, resourced, implemented and evaluated. The strategic goals, principles and values presented in this strategy are built on this foundation, and they, in turn, create the framework for constructing the operational plans of the extension service as well as for management and measurement of the service. The second thrust of the study was to filter the Agriflection concept through South African educational and agricultural policy. Given that the agricultural frontier is subject to change in focus and priorities, it was reasoned that the training and education of would-be extension practitioners needs to be able to respond to changes in methods and in the field. The National Government has adopted the outcomes-based model as the general structure for curriculum development. Further sustainable development/livelihoods has been adopted as the general framework for development. Outcomes-based education and sustainable development/livelihoods provide a framework for studying and developing curricula. A tool that enables curriculum analysis and development which allows for adjustment to changing imperatives while maintaining integrity in terms of education and development, would be valuable for tertiary institutions training extension officers. The result of this second thrust was the development of curriculum markers that encapsulated what non-technical knowledge and skills (i.e. Agricultural Extension knowledge and skills) were needed to be able to deliver on the imperatives of the transformation agenda of current agricultural policy. Thirty-four markers were identified. The third thrust of the study was to create a credible method to evaluate Agricultural Extension curricula and to capture and analyse data. A detailed review of methods and approaches was made resulting in fashioning the Theory-led Instructional-Design Curriculum Evaluation (TICE) method. One of the primary facets of this six-process method is questioning of the assumptions on which the discipline of Agricultural Extension is based. Such a questioning would lead to a new theory to govern the evaluation of curriculum. Ancillary to the TICE method were the methods of data collection and analysis. The study consolidated these in presence and efficacy factors. These factors measured the presence of the 34 markers in Agricultural Extension curricula and the extent to which they were addressed, if present. The fourth thrust of the study was the detailed evaluation of curricula of qualifications most commonly held by public sector Agricultural Extension practitioners. The study examined the curricula of agricultural diplomas, of three- and four-year agricultural degrees and of one-year postgraduate qualifications offered by Colleges of Agriculture and selected Universities and Universities of Technology. The fifth thrust was to conduct corroborative investigations in the public sector. This was done by surveying Agricultural Extension practitioners asking them to evaluate the extent to which they believed they have knowledge and/or skill represented by the 34 curricula markers. In addition, a brief analysis was made of Agricultural Extension practitioner job descriptions used in the public sector. This was done to determine what knowledge and skills were expected of Agricultural Extension practitioners and comparing this to the 34 markers. The study revealed that there is very limited Agricultural Extension training offered in the curricula of qualifications held by the majority of public sector Agricultural Extension practitioners. Further, using the 34 markers as the touchstone, it was determined that the current curricula do not adequately equip public sector Agricultural Extension practitioners to deliver on the agenda of current South African agricultural policy. Without extensive revision of curricula in terms of both the quantity and content of extension training, the South African public sector Agricultural Extension service will not be able to realise the intended transformation of agriculture. Its key operatives will not have the knowledge and skills needed to do so. This is a unique study. No study of its kind has ever been conducted in South Africa. Numerous studies have been conducted into the training needs of Agricultural Extension practitioners. None have gone to the extent of questioning the assumptions on which Agricultural Extension is based. None have made a critical examination of curricula in the light of current educational and agricultural policy. This study found that there is an urgent need for serious attention to be given the purpose, scope, outcomes of Agricultural Extension higher education in South Africa to ensure that it can contribute to the positive and sustainable transformation of agriculture.
Analyzing organic farming training in the curriculum of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.
(2010) Polepole, John Sanzimwami.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
The study was conducted in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, in the town of Pietermaritzburg, at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The aim of the research was to analyse to what extent organic farming is part of the curriculum at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) in the Faculty of Science and Agriculture. The objectives of the study consisted of determining what is currently offered in terms of organic farming or sustainable agriculture; identify what the perceptions of students and lecturers are about organic farming; and identify the challenges faced by academics and stakeholders in organic farming. The research method used to achieve the objectives was qualitative; it was done through interviews, site visits and observations. The data analysis used Microsoft Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) for interpretation and coding. This process was based on the data analysis spiral, as described by Creswell (1998) cited in Leedy and Ormrod (2005). The research found that in the UKZN current curriculum there is a presence of modules dealing with organic farming to a small extent. The perceptions of academic staff concerning organic farming were related to sustainability, environmental protection, use of alternative methods for food production, human health protection and knowledge for future generations. Organic farming was regarded as a crucial approach on different levels, including food security, environment, economy and market. The challenges in organic farming field are more related to costs involved in production, lack of interest or awareness, yield production (very poor and not competitive); limited career opportunities; lack of expertise in the organic domain, lack of government support and intense competition with chemical companies. The research recommends an enhancement of organic farming training in the curriculum at UKZN/PMB; involvement of students in developing the curriculum; government support for organic agriculture; more research exploring the merits and disadvantages of organic farming; assessment of farmers’ knowledge and skills in marketing; initiation of partnerships between organic farmers, processors, retailers; and government, to study a range of issues related to organic farming.
The applicability of the agricultural production systems simulator (APSIM) model to decision-making in small-scale, resource-constrained farming systems : a case study in the Lower Gweru Communal area, Zimbabwe.
(2011) Masere, Tirivashe Phillip.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Small-scale farmers rarely get enough yields to sustain themselves to the next harvest. Most of these farmers are located in marginal areas with poor soils and in semi-arid areas which receive little rainfall yet the farmers practice rainfed agriculture. A number of reasons can be attributed to the low yields characterizing these farms. Lack of relevant knowledge for decision-making and climate change are among the major reasons for poor yields. Whilst there is not much the small-scale farmers can do to influence climate, they can at least make informed decisions to improve their yields. The information necessary for agricultural decision-making include the climate forecast information and information about performance of new technologies be it fertilisers, varieties or other practices. The study aimed to answer the primary research question: What is the applicability of the APSIM model in decision-making by small-scale resource constrained farmers? This question was supported by secondary research questions namely: - How useful is the APSIM model in small-scale farmers' adaptation to future climate change? - What are the current farming systems of Lower Gweru farmers with regards to maize production? - What are farmers' perceptions of climate change and what changes have they noticed in the last 10 years? - How do small-scale farmers make crop management decisions? Data was gathered through five methods namely, Focus Group Discussions, resource allocation mapping technique, APSIM simulations, on-farm experimentation, and semi-structured interviews. Data was collected from a group of 30 small-scale farmers of Lower Gweru Communal area. The study concentrated on maize production due to the fact that it is the staple food and was grown by all farmers. All the farmers perceived climate to be changing. The changes noted included late start of the rain season, early cessation of rain season and temperature extremes. The majority of farmers highlighted that they were using local indicators to make decisions about climate or to forecast the nature of the coming season before they were exposed to SCF and APSIM. The data gathered from three selected resource allocation maps were used to run the APSIM model. For which farmers were convinced that the model was credible in yield prediction based on the simulated results which reasonably compared to observed yields. The what if questions raised by farmers during the discussions were also assessed and this further increased the farmers' confidence with the model, as they viewed it as a planning and guiding tool before one can actually commit resources. The semi-structured interviews showed that most farmers will continue to use the model outputs in their decision-making. The reasons being that it was a good planning and budgeting tool, it is cheaper and faster since one can assess a lot of options in a short time and would then decide on which options are viable in a given season. The few farmers who said they would not use the model or its outputs in decision-making cited reasons including lack of a computer to install the model and that it was complex for them. Semi-structured interviews confirmed the data collected in resource allocation mapping, focused group discussions and APSIM sessions.
Assessment of the University of KwaZulu-Natal Bachelor of Agricultural extension curriculum implemented at Cedara College.
(2018) Polepole, John Sanzimwami.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
This study assessed the effectiveness of Bachelor of Agriculture in Agricultural Extension and Rural Resource Management (BAgricExt) qualification of the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), implemented at Cedara College of Agriculture. Any academic programme aiming to achieve success requires regular assessments of its activities to determine areas that need to change or improve. The BAgricExt is considered as one of the potentially pivotal qualifications in agricultural education with a direct link to farmers and primary production. The impact of Agricultural Education and Training (AET) is and will remain considerable in the South African landscape. It is contributing substantially to provide knowledge and skills for production of food and fibre which, in turn adds value to the country’s economy. The quality of education provided in the agricultural field will determine the graduates’ efficiency and ability to contribute to the increase in quality, quantity and efficiency of food and fibre production countrywide. The primary research is presented under three main topics in the form of publishable articles. The first one establishes a framework to assess an undergraduate qualification of any kind. Different elements (input, process, outcomes and influencing factors) to be assessed in the undergraduate qualification are suggested and the most important area to consider as far as qualification performance is concerned are specified. This led to developing a model of assessing an undergraduate qualification. The model is called: ITAPP (Intake, Teaching and Learning, Access to facilities, Performance, and Placement) model. The second paper describes the learning outcomes required to enable graduates to serve effectively as extension practitioners to build the capacity of farmers. In addition to extension theory and practice, the areas of learning include agricultural production, natural resource management, farm business management, and farm engineering. The third part of the literature review establishes a framework showing how better learning can be acquired specifically in the BAgricExt. A qualitative approach, consisting of interviews and focus group discussions with various categories of participants purposefully chosen was followed to collect data. The study was conducted among 65 UKZN students, nine lecturers, three administrative officers and seven potential employers of BAgricExt graduates. With this sample, it was possible to obtain qualitative data and more insights into the research question based on the experiences and knowledge of respondents. Using the ITAPP framework, the learning outcomes required for BAgricExt were established. Learning outcomes were presented based on level descriptors as recommended by the South African government (Higher Education), and determined the environment, including safeguarding quality assurance, conducive to successful completion of the qualification. With reference to the research objective, the study found that the BAgricExt programme with its present curriculum is operational and has a clear delivery and support system that is sustainable. BAgricExt programme allows students to start and finish being well-grounded, with substantial knowledge and skills (theory and practice) in Agricultural Extension, agricultural production, farm business management, resource management and farm engineering. Specifically, against the ITAPP framework, the study found that the BAgricExt was successful on two core elements: ‘Teaching and Learning; and ‘Performance’. While this places the programme on a solid footing, the study determined a need for greater efficiency in the other elements of the framework (Intake, Access to Facilities, and Placement) – which, the study suggests can be improved by taking into considerations the recommendations drawn from this study – particularly regarding the “placement” element. The study recommends to the BAgricExt to give more attention to placement and look at the ways that it increases prospects of a livelihood either as an employee or through selfemployment. The degree should be more directly centred on ‘where the graduate is going’ and how the graduate will gain a living by using the competences acquired in the programme. A model was developed for this purpose, and a revised framework presented to evaluate the BAgricExt in prospect of a livelihood - it is called “Placement-Centred Intake to Performance (PCIP) Framework”. It is anticipated that through this shift in focus the BAgricExt will be substantially strengthened.
Communication and information management in partnership development : the case of KwaZulu-Natal Agricultural Development Forum.
(2007) Riungu, Francis Muriithi.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Purpose: This study aims to investigate the role of communication and information management in inter-institutional collaboration and review aspects that are crucial for partnerships to function effectively in a multi-stakeholder situation. These aspects include: stakeholders, stakeholder analysis, partnership development and its fundamental values and principles, communication analysis, information and knowledge management and management of conflicts. The study seeks to explore the influence of these aspects for partnership development and sustainability respectively.
Dimensions of agricultural educational training in formal education centres : in the case of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
(2013) Kidane, Tsion Tesfaye.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
This study investigated student and teacher attitudes, factors affecting those attitudes and perceptions of students towards different aspects of agricultural education programme processes offered in secondary schools in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It can be used by policy-makers and can also assist the various South African Departments of Education (DoE) and schools to improve classroom administration, curriculum delivery and the provision of teaching facilities and other required support. The sample population comprised 375 high school agricultural science students and 180 agricultural science teachers. The research was arranged in nested Concurrent Mixed Sampling Designs. A multi-stage, random, purposeful sampling procedure was implemented to select the sample population. The survey was conducted by using a pre-tested structured interview schedule. The survey used structured and unstructured questions appropriate to the study objective. The supplementary qualitative information was collected from both categories of respondents, using an open-ended questionnaire, observation and interviews. The quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics, such as frequency, percentage, mean, chi-square and the Tobit Model. The qualitative data was analysed using a spiral content analysis. With a 97% response rate, the result showed that there was sufficient agricultural lesson coverage in the teaching and learning process, but that there was often no compensation for missed lessons. Other problems include a shortage of teaching materials, trained agricultural science teachers and support for teaching programs. In aggregate, 76.5% of the students and 88% of the teachers have a highly positive attitude towards Agricultural Education and Training (AET). There was, however, a significant difference between the attitude of students in Dedicated, Rural and Urban Schools towards various aspects of AET. Racial background (African, White and Colored), large family size, discussion about agriculture with other people and family access to farming land, positively and significantly affect students’ attitudes towards AET. African students seemed to have the highest positive attitude towards AET, when compared to the White and Coloured students. Coloured students had the least positive attitude towards AET. Generally, the attitude of students positively increased with an increase in their family size. The absence of family access to farming land, having high school-educated mothers, and a monthly family income of between R500-5000, significantly and negatively influenced students’ attitudes towards AET. Teachers in the age category of 20-29 years have a negative correlation with their attitude towards AET. Teachers in the age category from 30 to 59 years were positively correlated with their attitude towards AET. This means that the attitude of teachers towards AET was positively influenced with an increase in the age of teachers above 30 years. Younger teachers had a more negative attitude than older agricultural science teachers. This suggests that more attention should be focused on motivating and supporting younger teachers to positively influence their attitudes towards AET. The availability of internet access to teachers negatively influenced their attitudes towards AET. This was attributed to the fact that they are not accessing AET-related information through their respective schools, mainly due to the lack of computer and internet facilities in the schools. The results showed that a higher percentage of agricultural science high school teachers were offering AET without having an agricultural science qualification and hence, even if they were more satisfied in terms of salary, their attitude towards AET was still negatively influenced. Conversely, teachers’ attitudes toward AET were positively influenced by racial background (African, White and Colored), having an Agricultural Science qualification, being satisfied with administrative support, experiencing social value, good human relations and respect in their schools and in the larger community, and the availability of good communication between teachers, students, administrators and support staff in their school’s micro-environment. African teachers had a more positive attitude towards AET, compared to the White and Coloured teachers. These findings, which are based on the empirical data should be used as the basis for improving AET systems aimed at establishing open information-sharing and networking between policy-makers and implementers in order to make timely adjustments, for the limitations that occur. The findings also implied the need to improve the quality of AET offered, by creating awareness among policy-makers and implementers at all levels concerning current attitudes of teachers and students, as well as the factors influencing them. They suggest that consideration should be given to teaching-learning infrastructure, income-generating agribusiness sources, such as the establishment of small-scale farming, and in-service training programmes for agricultural science teachers.
Effectiveness of the house-to-house rabies vaccination programme : a case study of Magabheni Township.
(2013) Mtshali, Mduduzi Michael.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Rabies is a zoonotic disease that is caused by a virus. Rabies infects domestic and wild animals, and is spread to people through close contact with infected saliva trough bites or scratches. The disease is present on nearly every continent of the world but most human deaths occur in Asia and Africa. Dogs continue to be the main carrier of rabies in Africa and Asia and are responsible for the human rabies deaths worldwide.People most at risk of rabies live in rural areas. The economic burden of rabies in the developing world takes large toll by means pre and post exposure prophylaxis treatments, cost of vaccine and other hidden costs. The study is set out to investigate the effectiveness of house-to-house rabies vaccination in Magabheni Township in KwaZulu-Natal province, a region that has experienced rabies outbreaks since 1976s. It is well-known that control of rabies at the animal source is a key to control of the disease in humans. However the main problem faced in the control of this zoonotic disease is that vaccination of dogs is not sustained, as a large percentage of dogs are not accessible. Due to some hiccups in existing strategies, there is always a significant percentage of the dog population that is not accessible. The strategy proposed and investigated is indeed labour intensive but result is a much higher percentage of dogs being accessed. In brief the observation and questionnaires as tools to generate data. The data obtained will be useful and can be considered as a strategy for rabies control in the country and probably the region
Evaluation of nutritional, chemotherapeutic and educational approaches to manage gastrointestinal nematodes and improve small-scale goat farming.
(2007) Vatta, Adriano Francis.; Rijkenberg, Fredericus Hermanus Johannes.; Worth, Steven Hugh.; Harrison, Leslie J. S.
Small-scale goat farmers from south-western KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, identified gastrointestinal helminths, dry-season feed scarcity and poor reproductive performance as major production constraints and highlighted the paucity of information on goat health and management. The research and extension processes adopted to address these problems comprised on-station experimentation, followed by on-farm validation combined with the participatory dissemination of both study findings and relevant information on goat health care. The approach included the use of the FAMACHA© system to assess anaemia, a characteristic symptom of infection with the gastrointestinal nematode, Haemonchus contortus (Rudolphi, 1803). On-station experimentation indicated that urea-molasses block supplementation during the dry, winter season was a cost-effective option. Unfortunately, when tested on-farm, the value of such supplementation proved inconclusive, possibly due to low block consumption and further research into alternative and palatable protein supplements for goats is suggested. However, tactical anthelmintic treatment with ivermectin effectively reduced faecal egg counts and is recommended, as is concurrent symptomatic anthelmintic treatment, as determined by the FAMACHA© system, since this practice appeared to improve reproductive capacity. Investigations to better adapt the FAMACHA© system to goats is, however, recommended. A flexible training framework was developed with the collaboration of the farmers, providing them with advice on goat health and management. This ‘hands-on’ approach encompassed regular meetings geared to the farmers’ current expertise and exploited the on-farm experimentation as a training vehicle. The process nurtured local farmer ‘champions’, strengthened the extension skills of researchers and technicians and incorporated the development of a Goatkeepers’ animal health care manual. Indications are that the use of such an approach has considerable potential for the development of goat farming. Moreover this process, which is relatively novel for South Africa, is equally applicable to other similar agro-ecological zones. Access to veterinary and agricultural inputs in areas where communal grazing is practised could be vastly improved and a case is made for universities, researchers, extensionists and farmers to collaborate to encourage the long-term sustainable development of these communities.
An evaluation of the role of extension in adoption of new technology by small-scale resource-constrained farmers : a case of Lower Gweru Communal area, Zimbabwe.
(2015) Masere, Tirivashe Phillip.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
The importance of agricultural extension in small-scale farming systems of developing countries cannot be overemphasised. Extension organisations and their agents play crucial roles in transferring technologies to small-scale farmers for adoption and in fostering development of innovations from among diverse actors including farmers, research institutions, input suppliers, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and donors. In many developing countries, particularly of Africa, most new agricultural technologies are disseminated by the primary public extension agencies. In Zimbabwe, the Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) through its agents are tasked with this responsibility. Despite the efforts by AGRITEX and its agents in disseminating new technologies aimed at improving farm production and hence the livelihoods of small-scale farmers, the adoption of most such recommended technology has been poor. This study was thus driven by the following primary question: What are the main factors influencing small-scale farmer innovation and adoption of recommended technology? The objectives of this study were to: a) Determine the main factors influencing small-scale farmer innovation and adoption of recommended technology; b) Evaluate the role and influence that extension has on small-scale farmer innovation and adoption of recommended technology; and c) Determine key attributes of an appropriate extension system and modes for small-scale farmers that may provide a lasting solution to the technology adoption issue. The study was conducted in Lower Gweru Communal area, Zimbabwe with a study sample of 256 small-scale farmers. These farmers were selected by means of multi-stage stratified random sampling to eliminate bias and ensure equal representation of male and female farmers from all the eight Wards of Lower Gweru Communal area (Sikombingo, Nyama, Mdubiwa, Chisadza, Madikani, Bafana, Nkawana and Communal ward 16). Data was solicited from both small-scale farmers and extension agents operating in the study area. Three instruments namely focus group discussions (FGDs), semi-structured interviews (SSIs) and participant observations were used to collect data from farmers. Two focus group discussions (FGDs) were held in each of the eight wards to gather general information about technologies disseminated to farmers over the last several years, sources of technology, and their perceptions of extension services. Similar, but more specific information was collected using SSIs with 200 farmers (100 men and 100 women) from among the study sample of 256 farmers. Participant observation technique was used to corroborate information gathered in FGDs and SSIs. Furthermore, a census in the form of SSIs was conducted with extension personnel servicing Lower Gweru Communal area to solicit the extension workers’ perspective on factors affecting technology adoption by small-scale farmers including their perceived challenges in offering quality service delivery to their clients. The census was necessitated by the relatively low number of extension workers (21) operating in the study area. Key findings from FGDs and SSIs included that small-scale farmers are largely constrained in adopting recommended technologies by a number of factors. These factors include small land sizes, high cost of technology, lack of capital to buy technologies, lack of access to both credit facilities and input-output markets and lack of adequate information support (and practical demonstrations of how to utilise technologies to potentially improve production). Furthermore, farmers cited that they are usually excluded by extension and technology developers in problem definition and development of possible solutions (technologies). As a result, extension agents and technology developers often fail to comprehend farmers’ problems and priorities leading to poor adoption of technology they recommend. Most of these technologies are disseminated in a “one-size fit-all” approach to different farmer groups with different needs and problems. Key findings from extension agents included that they were not able to deliver quality services to their clients (farmers) mainly because AGRITEX is poorly funded and this led to poor adoption of recommended technology. This funding challenge cascades into multiple problems including: poorly remunerated and de-motivated workers, high turnover of experienced, competent and skilled staff; high influx of inexperienced and incompetent staff rushed to replace the experienced and competent staff; high agent to farmer ratios; lack of in-service training for the inexperienced workers; and lack of transport for workers to reach many farmers. The study found a mismatch between technologies that are needed or demanded by farmers and those being recommended or “imposed” on them by extension agents. Unless this discrepancy is addressed the poor adoption of recommended technology issue will persist. As a lasting solution to poor technology adoption, this study proposes and recommends the development of an appropriate extension system and complementary extension modes that promotes building the capacity of extension agents and researchers, and embraces farmers and their indigenous knowledge. In this proposed extension system, farmers’ views, experiences and perspectives are taken into consideration in developing and testing technologies which could improve technology adoption. This extension system should possess six key characteristics: farmer-focused; whose purpose is farmers’ empowerment and capacity development; where the role of extension is mainly that of facilitation and brokering as determined by prevailing farmer needs; where farmers have a key role in determining what to learn and how they want learn; it should emphasise social capital and sustainability; and whose nature of learning is experiential, field-based discovery learning aimed at sharpening farmers’ analytical, problem solving skills and to demand services. However, for the proposed appropriate extension system for small-scale farmers to work effectively, it must be backed by the availability of committed, highly competent and flexible extension agents to function effectively in offering quality service delivery to meet diverse needs of farmers. Equally important for the effective operation of proposed extension system, is the need for strengthening of linkages between key actors in the innovation and technology development network.
An evaluation of the role of public agricultural extension services towards promoting sustainable agriculture in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.
(2019) Khwidzhili, Rendani Humphrey.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
South Africa lacks an inclusive policy on sustainable agricultural practices. This has resulted - in the continued over-exploitation of the natural resources by farmers. This study evaluates the role played by public agricultural extension services in promoting sustainable agricultural practices in Mpumalanga province. The framework of this study was adopted from a Framework for Evaluation of Sustainable Land Management (FESLM) which was developed through collaboration among international and national institutions as a practical approach to assess whether farming systems are trending towards or away from sustainability. The framework of this study was based on the five-pillared framework: maintaining and increasing biological productivity, decreasing the level of risk to ensure larger security, protecting the quality of natural resources, and ensuring agricultural production is socially acceptable. Most literature refers to sustainability and to sustainable agriculture, citing the common three pillared framework of economic, environmental and social sustainability which falls short of key elements found within the five-pillared framework. This study argues that the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices remains the domain of public agricultural extension services. The study proposes a need for the establishment of an inclusive policy that deals specifically with sustainable agricultural practices. In order to bring closer the context of the study, the definition of agricultural extension and the role it plays in agriculture is thoroughly discussed. The study also defines sustainable agriculture and why it became imperative in the last decade to expand the focus to the five pillars as a method for measuring outcomes in the future. The study evaluates the role of agricultural extension practitioners in Mpumalanga province in promoting sustainable agricultural practices. It further evaluates the role of extension managers in supporting extension practitioners. In conclusion, the study seeks to provide guidance to policy makers in considering the five pillars of sustainable agriculture when establishing agricultural policy on sustainable agriculture in South Africa. The study supports the need for training of extension managers, extension practitioners and farmers in the discipline of sustainable agricultural practices.
Exploring expansive learning in sustainable agriculture: a case study of commercial sugarcane farmers and extensionists in KwaZulu-Natal Midlands and South Coast.
(2014) Koopman, Vaughan.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Sugarcane production in South Africa is at a crossroads. Internationally, the South African sugarcane industry is a small player. But within South Africa it remains a significant commodity supporting a substantial number of livelihoods. Sugarcane agriculture has a significant impact on South Africa’s environment. The industry thus bears a large measure of responsibility to contain that impact. It is under pressure to conform to national legislation and international standards of sustainable production, whilst big players like Coca-Cola have indicated the sector needs to ‘green up’ or potentially face loss of sales. One response to this has been the industry’s development and adoption of the Sustainable Sugarcane Farm Management System (SUSFARMS) as a sustainability decision support tool for sugarcane growers. The implementation of SUSFARMS however demands an unprecedented level of integrated action on the part of competing actors in the value chain. Key among these are the cane farmers, the South African Sugar Association (SASA), millers, and the South African Sugar Research Institute (SASRI) – the latter two being the dominant players in sugarcane extension. SASA’s and SASRI’s traditional top-down technology transfer approach was considered in this study as unlikely to achieve the learning and collaboration required to successfully achieve broad scale use of the SUSFARMS tool and implementation of both social and environmental sustainability practice. To begin the learning and collaborative process, this study examined the professional learning needed to foster multiagency partnerships supporting sustainability practices among SASRI extension specialists and large-scale commercial sugarcane growers in the Midlands and South Coast regions of South Africa’s KwaZulu-Natal province. This research explored whether sugarcane farmers and extensionists can be supported through interventionist research to identify and address inhibiting factors relating to sustainability, learning and understandings of SUSFARMS. Inhibiting factors are most likely to be related to tensions and contradictions of cultural and historical origin within activity systems. For this reason, the epistemological framework for the research was provided by cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) and the theory of expansive learning. CHAT supported the research process to surface and identify tensions and contradictions related to SUSFARMS. Once surfaced these tensions and contradictions were examined and probed for their root causes and possible solutions proposed. Expansive social learning theory and CHAT was used in the study to explore the processes by which growers and extension staff foster learning in settings where knowledge and practice are not necessarily stable, well-defined or understood. A key element was the capacity of professionals working in multiagency settings to recognise and engage with disputed knowledge and distributed expertise in complex workplace settings. Workshops modelled on Engeström’s (1996) ‘Change Laboratory’ examined data from 17 semi-structured interviews with growers, extension specialists and industry managers selected by purposive sampling. The interviews and workshops were used to surface tensions and contradictions regarding sustainability practices - particularly those relating to SUSFARMS - which were used to support expansive social learning, allowing participants to deepen their understanding and learning of workplace practice, and to formulate proposed solutions. The first part of the study found: no formal learning plan for growers and extension staff exists; participation from growers in formal learning opportunities is weak; lack of quantifiable cost-benefit evidence hinders grower and extension support of SUSFARMS; strategic leadership from industry is not evident to people on the ground; and scope, structure and budget hampers extension’s impact. The second part of the study found four different ways sugarcane farmers and extensionists learn: learning from a more knowledgeable other; learning from peers; learning through observation and learning through practice and experimentation. These framings of learning suggest multiple ways in which farmers and extensionists interact and experience the world around them. They also suggest avenues of focus for strengthening industry extension approach. Ultimately six Model Solutions were developed: Clarify with stakeholders SASA’s position and methodology regarding SUSFARMS and on-farm sustainability; ensure communication and dialogue occur with stakeholders; identify and respond to grower and extension staff knowledge needs; strengthen informal grower and extension learning using expansive social learning processes; strengthen organisational learning through formal learning plans; and prioritise action research that strengthens grower, extension and researcher networking and understanding and develops quantifiable evidence relevant to on-farm SUSFARMS use and the implementation of on-farm sustainability practices. The study concludes with providing recommendations for agencies such as SASA and SASRI on their extension approach when introducing new technologies such as SUSFARMS in complex and often competing multiagency settings. The study suggests that SASRI, at institutional and farmer-interface level, should play close attention to understanding how their client farmers learn and ensure their systems and field officers have the relevant capacity and skills to engage farmers in the required collaborative learning.
Exploring the cause of the persisting productivity gap of small scale sugar cane planters in Mauritius : new directions for research and development and agricultural extension.
(2013) Pillay, Kessawa Pillay Payandi.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Despite progress made by Research and Development in the Mauritian sugar cane industry, a productivity gap averaging 1.5 to 2.5 tonnes of sugar per hectare has been constantly observed between large corporate planters and the small planters. Although recent studies (MSIRI, 2010) show that only a small proportion of the small planters have access to research findings, it is strongly believed that this alone cannot be the reason for this productivity gap. To be able to identify other factors that may also contribute to this gap, a qualitative study was undertaken. It comprised focus group discussions with research specialists, extension officers and representatives of farmers’ organizations and other service providing institutions to explore explored current extension practices in Mauritius. Secondly, a survey was conducted among a sample of small planters operating in three milling areas, located in the major agro-climatic zones of Mauritius. A realistic and practical sample size, adhering as closely as possible to the intent of the concept of saturation (Mason, 2010:1), was used, due to limited resources and funds. A total of 147 small sugar cane planters were interviewed using a questionnaire designed for that purpose and the information collected was processed and analysed using Microsoft Access and IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0. Knowledge of the demographics of the planters is important to be able to understand the reason for the productivity gap. The study found that the majority of the respondents own small-sized fields (less or equal to one hectare), are males over the age of 40 years, and have more than 15 years of experience in sugar cane farming. In terms of cane yield per hectare, a slight majority of the respondents (52%) indicated that they are not achieving their field potential. Among those achieving good cane yields, the majority are experienced farmers (< 15 years farming sugar cane) who own their sugar cane lands; 46% operate on farm sizes of less than one hectare and 94% adopt good management practices. Income, family tradition and a sense of duty were the most common reasons given by respondents for farming sugar cane. However, no single one of these was identified by a majority of farmers as the primary reasons for engaging in sugar cane farming; most gave a combination of these factors. The contribution of this income to the total income of the small planters is generally insignificant. Among the major conclusions of the study, the phenomenon of risk aversion /disincentive among the small planters towards further investments and adoption of new technologies is discussed. Three options are identified for the small sugar cane planters in Mauritius - small planters willing to improve their production levels; those willing to maintain the status quo; and those planters willing to opt out of the sugar cane business. It is conceded that to respond to these options, and particularly if there is a desire to improve the livelihood of the small sugar cane planters in Mauritius, research and extension have to review their functioning. They will, henceforth, have to engage themselves in genuine partnerships with the small planters and in this context a framework is proposed for the research process.
Factors influencing choices of grazing lands made by livestock keepers in Enhlanokhombe in Ukhahlamba (Drakensberg), KwaZulu-Natal.
(2009) Chonco, Johannes Mphumzeni.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
In South Africa, communal land still plays a significant role in the lives of many rural communities. While these communal lands have ostensibly been included within municipal frameworks, decisions about their utilisation still remains a practical reality for many livestock keepers. This research examined current herding and grazing practices, grazing areas being used in summer and winter, and factors taken into consideration by livestock keepers and herders when choosing grazing areas in the communal sub-ward of Okhombe, in the northern Drakensberg, KwaZulu-Natal. The aim of this research was to investigate the socio-cultural reasons of livestock keepers behind decision making about grazing areas. The primary research question pursued in the study was: How do livestock keepers select areas for livestock grazing in the sub-ward? Three sub-questions were developed to guide the research: What grazing and herding strategies are currently being used? Which areas are used for grazing, and in which season(s)? What are the considerations for choosing areas for livestock grazing? Data were collected from fifty-one (51) cattle keeping households in the sub-ward. Data were collected in five steps. The first two steps involved household and in-depth interviews using interview guides. The latter three steps involved a transect walks, one case study and focus group discussions to test and verify the data. The findings showed a wide range of livestock kept in Enhlanokhombe sub-ward. The majority (61%) of cattle keeping households had cattle and goats, which are important for ceremonial purposes. The primary reasons for keeping livestock involved agricultural, food and cultural purposes. The herding strategies found in the sub-ward involved family/relative member, hired herders and no herder, with the majority using family/relative members as herders. Three areas were used for livestock grazing were Maqoqa, Skidi and Mdlankomo. The key finding showed an increase in supplementary feeding, a decrease in traditional remedy usage and safety from theft as a new factor taken into consideration when selecting grazing land. Other factors involved presence of cropping fields, availability of grass and water, distance from home and family traditions. From these findings, one can conclude that there are clearly tensions between culture and changes in the society, culture and changes in economy; and livestock keepers' heritage and modern lifestyle. These tensions make livestock keepers' decision making processes harder. The grazing and herding strategies, and the choices of communal grazing areas are influenced by these changes. As a result, livestock keepers are shifting from their heritage and culture to being economic and adapting to modern world. The heritage and the clarity of gender roles are breaking down. Grazing and herding are, therefore, no longer simple and familiar, but complex and unfamiliar to livestock keepers. These findings have serious implications for extension, advisory and development approaches used when addressing livestock management among traditional livestock keepers. They imply that what is needed is a multi-dimensional and inclusive view of the livestock keepers' practices. Rather than relying on the long-held assumptions about livestock keepers, serious attention must be given to the tensions in communal livestock keeping and the complexity of communal grazing strategies. These must be deliberately and consciously used to inform interventions designed to improve communal grazing management.
Factors influencing smallholders participation in agricultural markets in Southern Niassa, Mozambique.
(2005) Lukangu, Gastao.; Green, Jannette Maryann.; Worth, Steven Hugh.; Greenfield, Peter L.
Government, donors and NGOs in southern Niassa have been, after the 1992 peace agreement, extensively involved in agricultural development programmes to improve smallholders' food security. A study of the area and literature review revealed that many factors limited the benefits of agricultural market development programmes. Yet, opportunities in southern Niassa suggested that appropriately designed programmes could improve the standard of living of smallholders if these programmes were designed on a solid understanding of factors and strategies influencing agricultural market participation by smallholders. The main research hypothesis of this study was that: smallholders would participate in agricultural markets when their wealth status was high, when they had enough available household labour and when cash crops were profitable." Four main hypotheses were investigated: (i) factors and strategies identified through smallholder perceptions would provide local and time specific information on the constraints and solutions to smallholder market participation; (ii) wealth status and wealth-ranking factors were positively related to market participation where agriculture was the main economic activity as in southern Niassa; (iii) labour aspects such as crop labour requirements (CLR) could be negatively related, while available household labour (AHL) and the ratio AHL/CLR could be positively related to smallholders cultivation of cash crops and subsequent participation in agricultural markets; and (iv) aspects of profitability and indicators could be used to predict smallholder cash crop preferences. Data for this study were collected in Cuamba district of Mozambique from nine focus group discussions (FGDs) with community leaders, 287 household-head questionnaires and staff interviews during September 2002. Nine villages were randomly selected. The leaders' FGDs provided the criteria utilised to rank households according to wealth status and much of the qualitative information of this study. The wealth-ranking tool was used to identify and analyse the socio-economic factors that influenced smallholder market participation. A follow-up interview of managers of promoting institutions also provided greater insight on some aspects raised by smallholders. The study employed (i) descriptive statistics such as means and frequencies; (ii) correlation analysis and standard scores (iii) qualitative analysis was also used for some wealth-ranking, perceived labour demand and aspects of profitability influencing cash crop cultivation, preference and market participation based on information from FGD, farmers and staff; and (iv) simple mathematical expressions for analysis and interpretation of the research findings. This study relied on perceptions, knowledge and experience of smallholders, leaders and leaders of promoting institutions. Smallholder-suggested factors and strategies were in line with the limitations of socio-economic characteristics such as low effective household labour, particularly for females. These strategies included an improvement in outputs and inputs markets, agricultural services and credit at a subsidised prices or low interest rates. Other strategies for improving smallholders' participation in agricultural markets included promotion of profitable cash crops, household food security, provision of extension support services and information about cultivation and agricultural markets. However, smallholders did not identify some factors that have been acknowledged to influence agricultural market participation: ecological and natural resources, policies, institutional infrastructures and physical infrastructures. Smallholders also did not mention socio-economic factors (except household labour) as influencing their decisions to participate in agricultural markets in spite of the fact that researchers assume these factors in almost every study on smallholder market participation. The findings of this research confirmed that a wealth-ranking tool could be used to identify the socio-economic factors affecting smallholders' participation in agricultural markets. The identified wealth-ranking factors such as labour, livestock number, implements and bicycles significantly correlated with wealth status and subsequently to smallholder agricultural market participation. Conversely, household socio-economic characteristics not indicated as wealth-ranking factors such as age and gender related poorly to market participation. The wealth-ranking tool could also be used to identify strategies for improving smallholder participation in agricultural markets, and to evaluate an agricultural market development programme. The study found that, other factors being held constant, CLRs were negatively related to market participation. Weeding was the most labour intensive operation followed by harvesting, soil preparation, transportation, land clearing and seedling preparation. It also found that AHL and the ratio AHL/CLR were positive and significantly related to market participation. The ratio AHL/CLR together with household consumption requirements and yield were used to estimate the total area a household could cultivate, both for food crops for consumption and for cash crops; the proportion of farmers likely to participate in the market; and those unable to cultivate enough for consumption. The research also confirmed that profitability-related aspects correlated to cash crop preferences. Yield was the most important factor that influenced smallholders' preference for cash crops. It was also found that indicators incorporating more aspects of profitability correlated strongly with cash crop preferences. The correlation increased as more aspects were incorporated. A crop, such as tobacco, with a profit of more than twice the profit for food cash crops was preferred more than food cash crops. The indicators and underlying aspects of profitability were used to interpret the current and projected cash crop preference.
Indigenous approaches to maize production and soil management in Msinga KwaZulu-Natal, Province.
(2012) Nyiraruhimbi, Agnes.; Worth, Steven Hugh.; Polepole, John Sanzimwami.
This study explored and examined indigenous knowledge IK in the process of maize production and soil management by farmers in Msinga in central KwaZulu-Natal. This study was qualitative in nature. Two methods were used for data collection: focus group discussions; and individual semi-structured interviews. The study found that the Msinga farmers have a range of techniques and strategies to produce maize and manage the soil; they have been relying on this knowledge for generations. However, many farmers have also begun to adopt elements of western science such as the use of hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides – albeit access to them is a major problem. It was also found that these indigenous knowledge and techniques have also suffered as result of different factors, including the climate conditions as result of the growing drought in the area, the passing on of elders with knowledge, and the breakdown of social cohesion. Communities' indigenous knowledge has been rendered ineffective to, alone, address their maize production and soil management issues. As a result, indigenous knowledge is dying in this community and the farmers are not able to produce sufficient maize to meet their needs. In the face of these pressures, the Msinga farmers also lack any meaningful external assistance either from the government or private agencies. They have no access to extension. This means that communities have to fend for themselves, and where indigenous knowledge has failed they have no other alternatives that will help them to adjust to their environment. Finally, the study found that as a result of this stasis, the Msinga farmers and their families are poor and lack the basic means for their daily survival; food shortages are frequent. The consequence is that they appear powerless and unable to cope with challenges. The study recommends an integrated approach to address issues of reconstructing indigenous knowledge; social cohesion; environmental matters; poverty eradication; external support and integrating indigenous knowledge and western science.
Investigating the role of women in agricultural extension advisory services in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: current-status, challenges, and prospects.
(2022) Adebayo, Johnson Abidemi.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
This study investigated women’s role in agricultural extension advisory service, with a focus on their status, challenges, and prospect, using the uMgungundlovu District of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa as a case study. The study was conceived to identify the gender gaps among agricultural extension workers relative to overcoming household food security and enhancing rural livelihood, especially among women farmers, pointing out some hindrances limiting women's involvement in extension advisory services. Extension plays a significant role in enhancing agricultural production and community development initiatives. However, sustainable agriculture, rural livelihood sustainability, and food insecurity at the household level are still of great concern and continue to be substantial challenges for rural dwellers, especially women farmers in South Africa. Hence, this study Investigates the roles of women in agricultural extension advisory services in South Africa relative to overcoming household food security, the challenges confronting women advisors and farmers, and their empowerment needs, with specific reference to the KwaZulu-Natal province. The research processes used for this study are two-fold: a theoretical and philosophical process, on the one hand, and an empirical process, on the other hand. Both processes Involved a systematic Investigation pattern. This study draws from relevant published works, in the case of the theoretical process, to establish the gap that exists between female and male extension advisors. The study also establishes the degree to which women and men jointly participate as extension advisors, concerning the role of women advisors in facilitating household food security, rural livelihood, and sustainable agriculture among farmers, with special linkage to the profile of women in Africa Agriculture. The empirical process includes data collection through semi-structured interviews with selected respondents comprising of Provincial and district directors and deputy directors of extension and advisory services, a director of a non-governmental organization, female and male extension practitioners, and female and male farmers. Twenty respondents, including fifteen female extension advisors and five provincial and district stakeholders in extension advisory services, participated in the Investigation of the constraint confronting women extension advisors. Also, forty-five respondents were interviewed on the prospect of empowering women extension advisors. Some of the respondents were involved in both investigations. The study found that whereas all other provinces have a majority of male extension advisors, KwaZulu-Natal is more evenly split between females and males’ extension advisors. However, this unique demographic did not appear to offer the female extension advisors any advantage with respect to the challenges they generally face as women extension workers. Key among challenges confronting women extension advisors includes: egoistic attitudes, and are biased toward women extension advisors, a persistent manifestation of gender disparity, Skills deficiency, and security threat. The study also found that female extension practitioners are a crucial support system to smallholder farmers, especially women and are Instrumental in increasing women’s participation in commercial agriculture production. However, key factors such as insufficient or inadequate technology knowledge, especially skills in digital tools, marketing, project management, and soil fertility test knowledge have constantly affected their efficiency. As such, they are limited in the level and extent to which women farmers' extension service needs could be met. Therefore, empowering female extension practitioners holds the prospect of Improving women farmers’ efficiency and effectiveness. The study concluded on the need for appropriate actions that strengthen women participation by creating a conducive work atmosphere that facilitates and promotes female extension practitioners' empowerment and tackle the challenges that often impede their productivity. It recommends the need to include women extension advisors’ voices in policy making. The Implication of this is that women will be directly involved in the design of the policy that shapes their services, given that most time, National policies and/or frameworks do not always translate well to the local level where implementation is required.
The role of agricultural extension and landcare policy in building farmer capacity to manage natural resources: the case of landcare programmes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa = Indima edlalwa abeluleka abezolimo neNqubomgomo ye-Landcare eKwakheni Isisekelokusebenza Sabalimi Ukuze kulawulwe Imithombo Yezemvelo: Ucwaningo Lwezinhlelo Ze-Landcare KwaZulu-Natali, eNingizimu Afrikha.
(2022) Ndlela, Sithembiso.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
Agriculture is an important element of the South African (SA) economy. However, increasing pressure to produce food has exacerbated pressure on natural resources (NR). The deteriorating state of NR is caused by multiple factors that vary from farm to farm. SA LandCare was established specifically to address this. However, LandCare programmes are perceived to focus primarily on relief and rehabilitation of NR rather than addressing the underlying fundamental complex causes. This study sought to explore the extent to which: LandCare attempts to mitigate core problems rather than symptoms; LandCare works to ensure long-term natural resource management (NRM) by farmers; and extension is contextualised in building farmer capacity to manage NR. This study also sought to provide a theoretical model depicting the positioning of extension within the LandCare programme to improve the sustainability of NRM while maintaining its goal of improving household food security. Primary research comprised semi-structured interviews with 45 key respondents selected using purposive sampling. The respondents included 20 farmers, 20 provincial extension workers and five LandCare officials in the National Department of Agriculture (NDA). These three groups of respondents were selected deliberately as they could provide more accurate information to fulfil the study objectives and help answer the underlying research question. This study had four central findings. First, the role of extension is not adequately contextualized in LandCare in terms of building farmer capacity to manage NR. Extension, in its NR-related work, is mainly involved in training farmers in specific technical skills and not in building learning and problem-solving capacity. This capacity would put farmers in the position of making informed decisions about the intended LandCare development and thereby make them more equal partners in the LandCare initiative. Second, the way the role of extension in LandCare is carried out in practice undermines the significance of local knowledge and experience and effectively dismisses them as not being credible because they are not “scientific” – not informed by recognised scientific theories and methods. This is inconsistent with capacity building theory that posits that true capacity is built starting with what farmers know and have. Third, farmers have limited opportunity to command structures and systems, and limited freedom to participate actively in all the LandCare processes, putting them on the passive receiving end of the programme. Further, LandCare implementation focuses less on empowering and building problem-solving capacity amongst farmer that is relevant to dealing with NR problems (during and post-project life) and more on enforcing change in farmers current practices to practices that are deemed to have less negative impact on NR. This runs a risk of making farmers constantly dependant on external support in addressing their NR challenges. Fourth, while the physical rehabilitation work is generally successfully achieved, there is a disconnection between the LandCare policy and its implementation on the ground. LandCare practice focuses more on rehabilitation of NR and introducing more conservation-friendly farming systems to farmers and gives less attention to building farmer capacity to be selfreliant and resilient in solving their own problems and better manage their NR – which is the antithesis of both the capacity theory and the intention of LandCare programme. Ultimately, the study proposes a framework for unifying the currently disparate processes to ensure that LandCare is simultaneously well administered, rehabilitates land and builds farmer capacity for sustainable NRM. Within the framework is a capacity-building ladder which helps maintain focus on the goal of sustainable NRM through the actions of the farmers on the land. Iqoqa EzoLimo ziyingxenye ebaluleke kakhulu emnothweni waseNingizimu Afrikha. Kodwa, ingcindezi ekhulayo yokukhiqiza ukudla sekukhulise kakhulu ingcindezi emithonjeni yemvelo (iNR). Umumo owehla kabi kwe-NR udalwa yizimo eziningi ezingefani ipulazi nepulazi. I-SA LandCare yasungulwa ukuze ibhekane ngqo nalokhu. Kodwa, izinhlelo ze-LandCare zibhekwa njengezigxile ekusizeni nasekuphuculeni i-NR kunokubhekana nezimbangela ezingelula nezibalulekile. Lolu cwaningo luhlose ukuthola ukuthi ize ifikephi imizamo ye-LandCare ukubhekana nezinkinga ezisemqoka kunokubuka izimpawusifo. I-LandCare isebenze ukuqinisekisa nokulawula i-NR esikhathini eside (i-NRM) okwenziwa abalimi; nokunweba okufakwe ekwakhiweni komthamokumumatha wabalimi ukuze balawule i-NR. Lolu cwaningo luphinde lwahlosa ukuhlinzeka imodeli yenjulalwazi eveza umumo wokunwebeka ohlelweni lwe-LandCare ukuphucula ukusimama kweNRM ngesikhathi kusimamiswa inhloso yokuphucula ukuba khona kokudla endlini. Ucwaningo olusemqoka lufaka izimposambuzo ezingahleliwe ngokugcwele kubalethilwazi abangama-45 abakhethwe kusetshenziswa ukusampula okunenhloso. Abanikilwazi abasemqoka babefaka abalimi abangama-20, abasebenzi basesifundazweni abangama-20 nabasebenzi abayisihlanu bakwa-LandCare emnyangweni kazwelonke wezolimo. Ucwaningo lwathola ukuthi umthamo wabalimi usemqoka ekubhekaneni ne-NR eyehlayo. Lwaphinde lwathola ukuthi nakuba inqubomgomo i-South African LandCare ifukamela ukwakha ingqalasizinda njengomongo, kodwa okwenzekayo kuveza okunye. Ukugxila kusekulungiseni umhlaba, hhayi ekwakheni uhlelokusebenza epulazini. Lokhu kwesekwa wukuthola ukuthi cishe ama-90% ababambiqhaza be-LandCare abalimi bemfuyo abajoyine uhlelo lokusebenza nokulungisa amadlelo okuklaba – okungekho nokukodwa okuyizinhloso zokwakha izinsizakusebenza. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngesikhathi ukunwebeka kuqalisa ukusebenza i-LandCare ayibonakali inenjongo yokwakha insizakusebenza edingekayo nezoba nokungaqondi okwenhlaliswano-namasiko lapho kukhona khona izinkinga eziphezulu. Kunokuxhumana okunqamukile phakathi kanye nokungabi nokuhambisana kwabanesabelo kwa-LandCare; kodwa basebenza ngabojwana. Ekugcineni, ucwaningo luphakamisa ukuthi uhlaka oluhlanganisa izinhlelo ezehlukene njengamanje ukuqinisekisa ukuthi i-LandCare ilawulwa kahle, ibuyisela umhlaba nokwakha umthamokukwazi komlimi nge-NRM esimeme. Ohlakeni lwelada yokwakha umthamo osiza ukugcina olusiza ukugcina ukugxila ekusimamiseni inhloso yama-NRM ngezenzo zabalimi emhlabeni.
The role of agricultural extension in promoting food security in the context of encouraging biodiversity conservation in South Africa : the case of KwaZulu-Natal.
(2013) Abdu-Raheem, Kamal Adekunle.; Worth, Steven Hugh.
This study evaluates the roles of agricultural extension relative to overcoming household food security and biodiversity conservation concerns in South Africa, with specific reference to the KwaZulu-Natal province. Food security in South Africa is paradoxical. The country is nationally food secure, yet a sizable percentage of its households remain hungry. The national government identifies agriculture as a potentially viable vehicle to ensure food security among the poor households. On the other hand, agricultural activities have taken a centre stage among the identified major drivers for biodiversity loss in the country. In fact, it is as if the relationship between agriculture, being the driver for food security, and loss of biodiversity is ‘inversely proportional’; hence the efforts to attain household food security and to ensure biodiversity conservation appear to be mutually exclusive. Extension is particularly well positioned to address both food security and biodiversity conservation concerns, since its activities are directly related to both objectives. In this context, this study investigates and unravels the functions which extension currently plays in respect of achieving these two seemingly contradictory objectives within KwaZulu-Natal, and draws conclusions about what must be done to effectively position agricultural extension to realise these currently dichotomised objectives simultaneously in the country. The research processes adopted for this investigation are two-fold: a theoretical and philosophical process, on the one hand, and an empirical process, on the other. Both processes followed a systematic investigation pattern. The influence of extension on food security and biodiversity conservation respectively were first interrogated separately; and subsequently, its influence on both of them simultaneously was examined. Drawing on relevant published works, in the case of the theoretical process, this study was able to establish that extension is particularly well positioned to address both food security and biodiversity conservation concerns simultaneously through the instruments of linkages, local knowledge facilitation, engaging and building on social capital and education. The empirical process involved data collection through semi-structured interviews with respondents, comprising various national and provincial-level food security and extension managers and extension practitioners, as well as food security/extension officers from two NGOs and farmers. A total of 46 respondents participated in the investigation on food security and extension issues, and 44 respondents were interrogated on biodiversity conservation and extension issues. Some of the participants were engaged for both investigations. The study generally found that extension engages primarily in technology transfer and supply of farming inputs like seeds and fertilizers to the farming households. Three sets of factors affecting the capacity of extension to promote food security together with biodiversity conservation emerged: household/community-level factors; social factors; service delivery factors; and ecological factors; the last being specifically related to biodiversity conservation promotion. Key among these factors were: inadequate household production resources including lack of seed banks and poor education, inadequate involvement of youth and men in agriculture, ecological conditions consisting of irregular and inadequate rainfall, drought and flooding, the top-down nature of agricultural and extension interventions, poor collaboration and coordination between extension and biodiversity conservation institutions, and poor extension management and delivery capacities. The study concluded on the need for appropriate linkages between the extension and the food security and biodiversity directorates of the Provincial Department of Agriculture, strengthening extension support system, and creating an atmosphere conducive to extension activities. It recommends that efforts of government, extension management, food security and biodiversity conservation institutions and farmers be integrated and better coordinated to clearly articulate policies for extension, food security and biodiversity conservation. In the light of the conclusions, the study developed and presented a ‘Refurbished Extension Model’ which builds on the current South African model by introducing the following three elements: i. collaboration among all the stakeholders involved in promoting food security, biodiversity conservation and agricultural extension objectives; ii. adoption of capacity-building approach (replacing the current top-down, technology transfer approach) by extension to support farmers who are at the centre of the food security and biodiversity objectives; and iii. re-invigoration of extension institutions by providing specific capacities which are lacking at present within the institution. With these in place, the model postulates that extension, alongside farmers, would be better placed to foster new farming ideologies to address the food security and biodiversity conservation concerns simultaneously.