Browsing by Author "Lawes, Michael John."
Now showing 1 - 20 of 21
- Results Per Page
- Sort Options
Item Biodiversity criteria and indicators for the sustainable management of industrial plantations.(1999) Linnett, Elizabeth.; Lawes, Michael John.Abstract not available.Item The biogeography of forest birds in the Limpopo Province, South Africa.(2003) Forbes, Dale.; Lawes, Michael John.Forest assemblage composition is determined by local ecological (e.g. patch area, species interactions), landscape (e.g. patch connectivity) and regional (e.g. historical change in forest distribution) processes. I investigated the relative effect of these processes on bird and frog assemblage composition in two isolated archipelagos of Afrotemperate forest in the Limpopo Province. The linear relationship between local and regional species diversity suggests that forest bird assemblages in the Limpopo Province are unsaturated. In addition, 66% of bird species and 42% of frog species in southern African forests are generalist species (i.e., forest associated as opposed to forest dependent), suggesting that matrix species have invaded forest assemblages. I thus argue that forest bird and frog assemblage composition is primarily determined by regional (historical) processes and that local ecological processes play a relatively minor role. Forests in the Limpopo Province were eliminated by major climatic changes during the Quaternary with major forest expansion only in the last 6000 years. Limpopo Province forest assemblages have thus established fairly recently. No forest dependent frogs and one forest dependent bird have established in the Limpopo Province forests from the relatively proximate forests in eastern Zimbabwe. This suggests that the Limpopo River catchment has acted as a significant barrier to the dispersal of forest vertebrate faunas. Cluster analyses showed that the forest bird and frog assemblages are essentially Afrotemperate and South African in origin with all forest dependent frogs and 97% of forest dependent birds occurring in the KwaZulu-Natal scarp forests. In addition the most important environmental gradient of change in the southern African forest bird faunas was the geographical distance from northern KwaZulu-Natal. This gradient is congruent with a major northward radiation of faunas from the KwaZulu-Natal scarp into the Limpopo Province. As a result the Limpopo Province forests have low biodiversity values compared to the KwaZulu-Natal scarp because forest frog and bird faunas are largely derived from the latter region. However, the importance of the Limpopo Province forests lies in their protection of threatened vertebrates as well as in providing landscape heterogeneity and ecological services to the surrounding matrix. Soutpansberg forest bird assemblages appear to be more robust and resilient and comprise a significantly greater proportion of forest associated species than those of the Limpopo Province Drakensberg. This is likely to be a consequence of more severe climatic extinction filtering of these faunas caused primarily by the proximity of the Soutpansberg forests to the arid Limpopo valley during the development of these forests. Consequently, regional and historical processes have played a relatively greater role in determining forest bird assemblages in the Soutpansberg than in the Limpopo Province Drakensberg and species richness in the former region was not significantly affected by local ecological processes (including forest area, isolation and habitat heterogeneity). Forest area and habitat heterogeneity did, however, affect forest bird species richness and abundance in the Limpopo Province Drakensberg where the relatively lower importance of regional processes (compared to the Soutpansberg) has combined with anthropogenic disturbance of smaller forests to increase the influence of local ecological processes. However, the role of local processes in determining local species richness is likely to increase in both archipelagos if the current rates of anthropogenic change and disturbance to forests are sustained. Forests greater than 138 ha (minimum critical patch size) are needed to avoid an island effect on bird species richness in the Limpopo Province Drakensberg. However, the long-term conservation of vertebrate assemblages in Limpopo province forests depends upon the successful conservation of evolutionary and landscape processes. This can best be achieved by maximising forest connectivity and landscape heterogeneity through the protection of both riparian corridors and forests of all sizes. The maintenance of historical dispersal routes, in particular connectivity along the escarpment with the scarp forests of KwaZulu-Natal, is important. This would require the protection of forests on the KwaZulu-Natal scarp and along the entire northern Drakensberg escarpment.Item Bird community structure and convergence in Afromontane forest patches of the Karkloof/Balgowan range, KwaZulu-Natal.(2001) Wethered, Robyn.; Lawes, Michael John.Forest fragmentation is caused by the clearing of patches of indigenous vegetation for agriculture, urban development, and other human land uses. Such action results in patches of remnant natural vegetation being surrounded by altered vegetation. I investigate the effects of forest fragmentation and matrix type on avian diversity and assemblage structure in forest patches of the historically fragmented Karkloof / Balgowan forest range, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. This study compares the bird assemblage diversity and composition of indigenous forest patches surrounded by commercial forestry (Gilboa complex) with that surrounded by natural grassland matrix (Balgowan complex). Insularisation of Afromontane Mistbelt forest in KwaZulu-Natal has led to loss of species where forest fragments support fewer bird species than comparably sized patches of mainland forest. Small fragments within natural grassland have fewer bird species per unit area than larger fragments. Forest patch area-dependent density compensation is evident and bird assemblages appear saturated. Bird assemblages are characterised by a non-random species distribution pattern where area-dependent processes are dominant, and the loss of species from fragments follows a deterministic sequence. In forests in the plantation-dominated matrix no island-effect is detectable and it appears that forest patches are converging on the same bird species richness, regardless of forest size. No density compensation is evident and bird assemblages are not saturated. The sequence of species loss from forest patches is not as predictable, where a random yet prominent colonisation process exists. As commercial plantations provide suitable habitat cover for movement of forest birds, colonisation of both distant and small indigenous forest patches has been possible, reducing the effects of area-dependent extinction in the forest patches but also resulting in lower species richness in larger patches. Bird species of the Karkloof / Balgowan forest range appear to be fragmentation adapted, and most species are resilient to further landscape change. Certain species are however more prone to local extinction than others. The major predictors of extinction risk are body size, abundance status, and feeding guild. Patch area is the dominant force governing traits in the natural Balgowan complex where larger species with low natural abundance and an insectivorous diet are most prone to local extinction. In the Gilboa complex the nature of the plantation matrix appears to be masking the species natural responses to fragmentation making it difficult to predict which species are most at risk. In order to preserve maximum bird diversity, including high-risk species, the largest intact forest units (≥302ha) must be conserved. Evidently, the nature of the matrix affects avifaunal diversity and distribution in forest patches, and plantations have the capacity to significantly alter bird assemblage structure and composition in indigenous forest patches. Forest fragments must be considered as integrated parts of a complex landscape mosaic, and this study emphasises the importance of understanding landscape-scale processes. Knowledge of ecological and life history traits proves valuable for predicting community level response to landscape change.Item Community participation in integrated conservation and development projects : a case study in the Hlatikulu Valley, KwaZulu-Natal.(1999) Loon, Rael Matthew.; Lawes, Michael John.Successful and convincing examples where local peoples' development needs have been effectively reconciled with biodiversity conservation remain difficult to find. One important reason for this is that little progress has been made in researching critical new areas such as developing indices to monitor qualitative concepts such as local participation. In this study, current approaches to the problems with measuring participation in Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) are reviewed. A theoretical framework combining the works of several practitioners is used to monitor the Nsonga Valley Forum (NVF), in the Hlatikulu Valley, Kwazulu-Natal as an example of an emerging ICDP. The NVF was formed in 1997 after a visit by the provincial parliamentary committee on Conservation and Environment. The Forum aims to act as a mouthpiece for the local Nsonga community and as a capacity building structure, while maintaining the ecological integrity of the Hlatikulu Vlei and adjacent Afromontane Hlatikulu Forest. Two sets of indicators are used in this framework. The prevalence indicators trace the nature of participation in the various stages of the development of the NVF's operation - i.e. in decision making and implementation, in benefit sharing and evaluation. The opportunity indicators refer to the level of opportunity or access available to the local people through the implementation of the Forum by analyzing its organisation and access to resources. According to this framework, the NVF would currently be classified as falling into the 'participation by consultation' category of an assumed legitimate typology of participation. Ultimately, empowerment properly defined, would be the goal of community development in the Hlatikulu Valley but would require a much greater participation of the community than is evident as present. In order to prevent biodiversity conservation and sustainable economic development from becoming no more than an attractive slogan, participatory development research needs to be replicable, cost-effective and realistic. Recommendations are accordingly made for the future assessment, monitoring and evaluation of the progress of the NVF and other similar ICDP projects.Item The effect of the spatial scale of tree harvesting on woody seedling establishment and tree dynamic at Ongoye Forest Reserve.(2010) Louw, Sharon Lilla.; Dent, Mark Clifford.; Lawes, Michael John.Subsistence harvesting pressure in most African countries focuses on the small and mostly unreproductive trees found in the understorey stratum and can have potentially insidious ecological effects. Harvest intensities at Ongoye Forest Reserve (OFR) vary significantly across the forest (range = 87 - 567 stumps ha-1), with harvesting focussed exclusively on poles from tree species that grow only in the understorey. Growing evidence indicates that seedling establishment from the pool of species available beneath a closed canopy is greatly influenced by the differential ability of species to take advantage of the short burst of resources in newly-created understorey gaps. Seedling dynamics in these gaps may determine forest tree diversity and dynamics and consequently harvest gaps have the potential to significantly affect natural forest dynamics. This study examined seedling establishment beneath intact understorey and within artificially created understorey gaps of different sizes (single stem gaps, two stem gaps, four stem gaps, eight stem gaps and control ‘gap’, where no stems were removed) that simulated different spatial scales of harvesting intensity of understorey trees. This experiment examined the proposition that successful seedling establishment and natural succession is strongly dependent on the scale of harvesting. Seedling abundance, species richness, irradiance (photosynthetically active radiation and the red to far-red ratio), soil nutrient composition and herbaceous layer cover was measured in each gap size in 2005 before harvesting, and again in 2007. The mean seedling abundance was not significantly different among gap treatments, although there was a trend towards more seedlings in 2005 than 2007. Seedling abundance in all gaps was greater than at control sites beneath the intact understorey. There was a continuous increase in seedling richness in 2007. An average species richness of 4.3 was recorded in the control sites, beneath a shaded understorey. Here, seedling richness increased by 18.24% with the removal of a single understorey tree (Gap 1). Species richness increased with increasing experimental gap size increased so that the greatest mean species richness (6.2 species) was recorded where eight neighbouring trees were removed (Gap 8). Light transmission reaching the seedling stratum was greater in larger gaps and there was a trend towards more seedlings and greater species richness in the higher light environments of such gaps. Soil nutrient levels did not influence seedling abundance and species richness in gaps. The herbaceous layer suppressed seedling establishment. In the largest gaps (115.4m2) created by harvesting, seedling composition was more deterministic than in small gaps where seedling establishment and density was random, accordingly there were more species in larger gaps from a more defined species assemblage. Current harvesting levels of pole-sized understorey trees, where only small gaps are created in the understorey, are unlikely to alter forest dynamics and species composition at OFR. This study demonstrates that harvesting eight adjacent trees crosses the harvest intensity threshold between sustainable natural tree dynamics and a potential successional shift to an alternative state. Clearly, for natural dynamics to be maintained harvesting intensities will have to be regulated.Item The feeding ecology of the African wild dog Lycaon pictus in Hluhluwe- Umfolozi Park.(1996) Krüger, Sonja.; Lawes, Michael John.The small population size of wild dog Lycaon pictus (10) in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (HUP) and the decline in their numbers since 1992, has caused concern for their survival and consideration of further introductions. In the light of many failed wild dog relocation and reintroduction programmes, this study contributes towards an understanding of the ecology of the HUP wild dog pack. Wild dog prey preference was determined from scat analysis and personal observations, and their potential impact on the primary prey species was modelled. The choice of physical habitat features by wild dog and their ranging behaviour within the Park were correlated with the distribution of their primary prey and other predators. To determine the susceptibility of prey to predation in three reserves with different predator diversities and densities, prey vigilance and prey response to playback recordings of predator calls were recorded. The results showed that wild dog preference for females, adult nyala Tragelaphus angasi and juvenile impala Aepyceros melampus, was a function of prey abundance, profitability calculated using a diet choice model, and ease of capture. Based on the overall lack of association of wild dog and their primary prey species and predators, and the overall lack of similarity of wild dog and prey choice of physical habitat features, predator presence was the most important determinant of wild dog ranging behaviour. Prey vigilance differed significantly between reserves and was inversely correlated with predator density. Prey response to predator calls did not differ significantly between reserves but prey did, however, react sooner to those calls unfamiliar to them. Nyala were more vigilant and responded sooner to playbacks than impala suggesting that nyala may experience greater levels of predation pressure. There was no evidence to suggest that the prey preference, habitat preference and ranging behaviour of the wild dog were influenced by the susceptibility of prey to predation. Models of prey population dynamics determined that although the introduction of an additional wild dog pack would result in a reduction of current prey population growth rates and an increase in prey population extinction probabilities, their predicted impact would be slight. Since emigration and population viability were identified as the primary causes of the HUP wild dog population decline, the introduction of two groups of wild dog individuals into Hluhluwe was suggested to boost population numbers and stimulate breeding and dispersal within the Park. The importance of future monitoring and proactive management was stressed to ensure the survival of this valuable species in the Park.Item Host suitability in the Diderik cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius - ploceid brood parasitism breeding system.(2003) Lemos, Sharon A. C.; Lawes, Michael John.; Henzi, S. Peter.Host suitability is critically important to the success of brood parasitism. Parasites must select a host that not only accepts its egg but also is capable of successfully rearing the parasite to fledging. Nearly all brood-parasites appear to avoid low-quality hosts that are likely to reject their eggs, that are of inappropriate size, or that feed their nestlings nutritionally inadequate or insufficient food. The diderik cuckoo, (Chrysococcyx caprius), is an obligate brood parasite known to parasitise a wide spectrum of ploceids, including the yellow weaver (Ploceus subaureus) and the southern red bishop (Euplectes orix). Theory predicts that brood parasites should exploit insectivorous passerines of similar adult size to themselves that provision large quantities of high protein food to their young. However, the relatively smaller granivorous red bishop is the most heavily parasitised host species of the diderik cuckoo in southern Africa. To investigate why an apparently unsuitable host species was so heavily parasitized several populations of parasitised red bishops and yellow weavers (omnivores) were studied in the Pietermaritzburg region, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Host suitability was assessed by examining diet quality, host-provisioning rates, cuckoo nestling growth and cuckoo fledging success. Diderik cuckoo nestlings were provisioned the same diet as the host nestlings in red bishop and yellow weaver nests. However, cuckoos in bishop nests received a protein-deficient seed diet from as early as six days following hatching. In contrast, weaver-cuckoo faeces contained 1~ times more insect than their bishop counterparts throughout their nestling period. Provisioning rates by bishop females were significantly slower than by yellow weavers, and neither bishop nor weaver hosts showed any 'supernormal' effort when feeding a young cuckoo. Both host species provisioned cuckoo nestlings at a similar rate and with a similar food mass as their own nestlings. Diderik cuckoos in bishop nests grew at a slower rate and fledged in a poorer condition than their yellow weaver counterparts. Red bishops are likely the most exploited host of the diderik cuckoo because i) cuckoo eggs are more readily accepted by the less discriminating bishop and ii) the bishop-breeding season coincides more closely with that ofthe diderik cuckoo than the yellow weaver. Thus, diderik cuckoos may preferentially exploit bishop hosts because of the low frequency of cuckoo egg rejection, which ultimately results in many cuckoos fledging from bishop nests despite the lowquality diet provisioned and 53% (n = 53) fledging success in nests of this species. In the yellow weaver system, the protein-rich diet and the greater probability of cuckoo nestling survival (80%, n = 5) may compensate for the high rejection rate of cuckoo eggs by this host. Thus, both host systems seem to represent evolutionary compromises for the diderik cuckoo, with neither red bishops nor yellow weavers being entirely ideal as host species.Item Indigenous plant use in Gxalingenwa and KwaYili forests in the Southern Drakensberg, KwaZulu-Natal.(1999) Nomtshongwana, Ngcali.; Lawes, Michael John.; Mander, Myles.In response to an increase in forest destruction, nature conservation agencies in South Africa are beginning to introduce innovative and integrated conservation strategies. This study was established to provide information on resource use in Gxalingenwa State Forest (GSF) and KwaYili State Forest (KSF) on which such conservation initiatives might be based. Local villagers in the area depend on a mix of forest products to meet their livelihood needs, including for example heating, cooking, fencing, building, craft-work and medicine. Large quantities (102.072 tonnes) of plant resources are removed from the GSF and KSF annually by traditional healers and commercial gatherers with commercial gatherers responsible for the largest proportions (88.1 %). However, the total market value of medicinal products to the resource users is higher than the local value, implying that the resource users are not harnessing the full potential of the forest products. Fuelwood, building, fencing and carving also account for a large bulk of materials harvested from the indigenous forests annually. Among several species, Podocarpus falcatus is the most preferred and harvested tree for fuelwood, fencing and building. Despite its high recruitment level, it shows a very unstable population structure. Calodendrum capense is debarked for medicinal uses. It is used locally and its current harvest by commercial gatherers is driven by a huge demand from the 'muti' markets. In KSF, C. capense generally has a low density but also has a relatively good recruitment rate when compared with an unexploited forest. However, the harvesting of immature stems pose a threat to this species.Item The influence of area reduction and commercial forestry on epigaeic invertebrate communities of Afromontane forest in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands.(2001) Bourquin, Sven.; Lawes, Michael John.This study investigates the effects of forest fragmentation and matrix type on the diversity and distribution of epigaeic invertebrates in selected Afromontane forests of the KwaZulu-Natal midlands. The consequences of area reduction and matrix transformation, due to commercial forestry, for epigaeic invertebrate diversity, and the role of small forest fragments in their conservation, are particularly examined. Data are used to provide guidelines for the management and conservation of Afromontane forest and adjacent land use. Epigaeic invertebrates were sampled using pitfall-trapping quadrats set along gradsect lines in eleven Afromontane mistbelt mixed Podocarpus forests, five of which were surrounded by commercial pine, and five surrounded by the natural grassland matrix. The two sets of five forests were approximately matched in pairs by area (0.5ha to 215ha) and compared for differences in the epigaeic invertebrate communities to determine potential effects of fragmentation and landscape transformation on these communities. A large tract of forest (Leopards Bush Private Nature Reserve, 705ha, hereafter Leopards Bush) situated within the continuous Karkloof forest, served as the control. Trapping intensity increased with forest area. Invertebrates were identified to morphospecies, and where possible, further identification was carried out by specialists. A total of 61 282 epigaeic invertebrates, representing 168 morphospecies, were collected. There was a significant positive species-area effect evident in the Balgowan complex (grassland matrix), but not in the Gilboa complex (pine matrix). There was thus a confounding influence of the pine matrix in the Gilboa, since the matrix represented the single most important difference between the two forest complexes. In afforested landscapes it is thus crucial to conserve the largest intact forest fragments to preserve overall epigaeic invertebrate species richness. Density compensation was evident in the Balgowan complex but not in the Gilboa complex. Recolonisation dynamics may play a small role in the regional persistence of a species within forest in a pine matrix, and persistence would be ensured by the preservation of a small number of large forest fragments containing large, extinction-resistant populations. The establishment of ecologically functional grassland corridors (i.e. wide enough to maintain "natural" ecological processes) between mistbelt mixed Podocarpus forest fragments would facilitate dispersal of epigaeic invertebrates between forest fragments. The results of this study indicated that edge effects were experienced deeper in the forests than the expected 32m suggested by Kotze and Samways (1999) and thus any changes to the epigaeic invertebrate communities induced by edge effects had already taken place inthese forests. Cluster analyses revealed that twenty-two percent (n = 37) of invertebrate species recorded were common to all forests and these shared species were generalist feeders. The effect of matrix type on diversity of epigaeic invertebrate communities was most notable for large forests (i.e. over 30 ha). Large fragments with core areas unaffected by edge-induced disturbance would support more forest dependent species than small fragments due to a lower susceptibility to invasions. Although not significantly nested, epigaeic invertebrate communities in both forest complexes tended toward nestedness. Isolation of forest fragments appeared to play a lesser role than patch area in determining the invertebrate community composition. Assuming that communities are extinction-dominated, community convergence in small fragments has probably already occurred, with invasions from the matrix confounding patterns of deterministic extinction of forest-dependent epigaeic invertebrate species. A habitat disturbance gradient was evident from the relatively undisturbed control (Karkloof quadrats) to the more disturbed pine dominated Gilboa quadrats, with intermediate disturbance values for the Balgowan (natural grassland matrix) fragments. The undisturbed Karkloof forest was characterised by a deep, abundant leaf litter layer, dense sub-canopy, and an abundance of seedlings indicating high rates of natural regeneration. Leaf litter depth was the most important variable in explaining the variation of epigaeic invertebrate species. A "shopping basket" of eight selected ecological indicators are mostly unrelated species. In general, this study supports the wealth of evidence advocating the use of epigaeic invertebrates, especially Carabid and Staphylinid beetles, as ecological indicators. In this study, eight species were identified by canonical correspondence analysis as ecological indicators that were sensitive to forest disturbance. This suite of species in the mistbelt mixed Podocarpus forests of the KwaZulu-Natal midlands will provide an accurate indication of forest condition in summer when abundance data is used.Item The invertebrates of indigenous forests in Limpopo province South Africa : diversity, biogeography and conservation.(2004) Horn, Johanna Lynn.; Harmer, Michelle.; Lawes, Michael John.In this study I investigated patterns of invertebrate diversity in Limpopo Province indigenous forests, in order to highlight forests and taxa of special conservation significance. Invertebrates from seven target taxa were sampled in 11 patches of indigenous forest in Limpopo Province from February 2001 to January 2002, including six forests in the Soutpansberg and five forests in the northern Drakensberg. Selected forests comprise three distinct vegetation subtypes and the target taxa selected were millipedes, centipedes, earthworms, terrestrial molluscs, spiders, scorpions and amphipods. Invertebrates were sampled by active searching of quadrats and line transects and pitfall traps. A total of 11 969 indigenous target group individuals were sampled, comprising 14 orders, 50 families, 86 genera and 142 species (including at least nine new). There was a significant difference in the total invertebrate species richness and diversity of forest patches but results varied considerably when different target group figures were analyzed. With the exception of spiders, the factors influencing total and individual target group richness in forests could not be determined. Introduced invertebrates comprised a large proportion of the species and individuals sampled, but were not shown to affect indigenous fauna. Invertebrate species assemblages were most similar between forests sharing the same vegetation subtype and between forests in the same mountain region. However, each forest patch had unique species and some even had unique families. Limpopo Province forests support high numbers of endemic invertebrates. A total of 47 endemic invertebrate species were sampled, including six site endemics, eight local endemics, nine regional endemics and 24 national endemics. The numbers and scales of endemism varied by target group. Invertebrate species’ distributions in Limpopo Province forests generally support the biogeographic theories of Pleistocene forest refugia and the Limpopo River valley as a radiation barrier, although some important contradictions were found. Local endemism in Limpopo Province forests is likely the product of historical processes. Although some significant relationships were found between surrogate and true measures, single taxon biodiversity indicators, the higher taxon method, morphospecies and land classes could not accurately predict patterns of target invertebrate species richness in Limpopo Province forests. Results show that formal species identification should be used if accurate richness estimates are desired; the use of surrogates is not supported by this study. Conservation of Limpopo Province forests is vital for the preservation of valuable invertebrate communities. No forest sampled in this study can be considered unimportant. Effective forest conservation and management is dependent upon the protection of forests of varying patch size, careful evaluation and control of utilization and the establishment and maintenance of corridors linking isolated forest patches.Item On the behavioural ecology and vocal communication of the brown-headed parrot (Poicephalus cryptoxanthus)(2002) Taylor, Stuart.; Perrin, Michael Richard.; Lawes, Michael John.The Brown-headed Parrot (Poicephalus cryptoxanthus) is a poorly known species inhabiting open woodland in south-eastern Africa. This study elucidates critical aspects of the species ecology and although each of these categories impinge on one another, it concentrates on two broad biological aspects, diet and breeding biology, and vocalizations. The species has a generalist diet, switching from one suite of food species to another as and when those species become available, with no species critical for its survival. Analysis of dietary items throughout the year and comparison with handling times and availability reveals that at no time is the species under dietary constraint. Evidence from association indices and behavioural observation shows that the popular view that the Brown-headed Parrot forms pairs just before breeding is erroneous. Birds retain pair bonds and the bond is long-term, lasting at least throughout the year. Congregations are therefore of a classical fission/fusion type with the sub-units being the paired males and females. A mathematical model of the growth of captive chicks is presented, as a guideline to alert potential breeders of Brown-headed Parrots of malnutrition or disease. The species is a secondary cavity hole nester and whilst, the breeding biology of the species is summarised, the importance of large and old trees for breeding opportunities of the species is emphasised. This theme is continued by testing various adaptive hatching hypotheses as possible explanations of asynchronous hatching in the species. It is suggested that asynchronous hatching may be an adaptive strategy moderating against the number of suitable nesting cavities. The vocalization repertoire of the Brown-headed Parrot is described and seven separate vocalizations are recognized. None of these are associated with sexual situations, offering further evidence of a long-term pair bond. Evidence is offered that Brown-headed Parrot chicks can recognise their parents from individual vocal signatures supporting previous evidence from a number of species where chicks may mingle with unrelated chicks. Conversely, parents seem to be unable to recognise their chicks in the same way. It is concluded that this inability may be a result of strong one-way selection pressure, where the costs outweigh the benefits for parents with more than one chick or may be related to the experimental design. Individual recognition by voice implies individual voice differences and the adult double chip contact call is analysed using multivariate statistical techniques. The analysis separates individuals on the basis of frequency and temporal patterns and it is concluded that these parameters may allow individual voice differentiation. Finally, high frequency aspects of the double chip contact call are examined. These frequencies lie above the normally accepted upper threshold of avian hearing. From laboratory and field experiments, behavioural evidence is presented suggesting that the Brown-headed Parrot reacts to these frequencies and may use their degradation as a means of ranging distances to conspecifics.Item The potential of agroforestry in the conservation of high value indigenous trees : a case study of Umzimvubu District, Eastern Cape.(1999) Mukolwe, Michael O.; Lawes, Michael John.South Africa is not well endowed with indigenous forests which are now known to be degraded and declining at unknown rates. This constitutes a direct threat to quality of life of the resource-poor rural households who directly depend on them and to ecological integrity. It is also recognised that the declining tree resources, particularly the high value indigenous tree species, are increasingly threatened by a number of growing subsistence demands. This emphasised the need to cultivate and conserve high-value tree species such as Englerophytum natalense, Ptaeroxylon obliquum and Millettia grandis on-farm in Umzimvubu District. Agroforestry is recognised as a viable option for optimising land productivity, reducing pressure on the indigenous forests, ensuring a sustainable supply of desired tree products and services and improving the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households. This Thesis examines whether agroforestry in Umzimvubu District and similar areas of South Africa has the potential for addressing these needs. It recognises that for successful initiation, implementation and adoption, agroforestry should be considered at two levels, namely, household and institutional. Responses based on structured questionnaires were obtained at these levels. Questionnaires were used to determine whether the households and institutions were aware of, and responding to, the need to intensify and diversify on-farm production, ease pressure on indigenous forest, improve income opportunities and problem solving capacities to address agroforestry related issues. An ecological inventory of E. natalense, P. obliquum and M grandis was carried out to provide a sound basis for integrating high-value species into appropriate agroforestry systems and to facilitate the preparation of future management guidelines for these resources in Mt. Thesiger Forest Reserve. The study: i) confirms that most high value indigenous tree species merit integration into subsistence farming systems through agroforestry, ii) appreciates that some rural households have been unknowingly practising agroforestry, iii) recognises that agroforestry is implied in South Mrica's White Paper on Sustainable Forest Development of 1997, but notes that similar emphasis has not been adopted or incorporated in the National Forestry Action Programme of 1997, and iv) notes that challenges to promoting agroforestry research and development in the South Mrican context of the institutions and resource-poor rural households are many, but can be resolved. The study concludes that agroforestry stands to benefit many resource-poor rural households and enhance environmental resilience in South Africa in the next millennium.Item The recovery of an afromontane forest after slash and burn : a case study from the Nkandla forest.(2000) Macpherson, Wade.; Lawes, Michael John.; Granger, James Edmund.; Hill, Trevor Raymond.Clear cutting and subsequent agricultural processes lead not only to species loss, but also have negative consequences for soil and water conservation. This study investigated the response to, and effect of, deforestation due to shifting cultivation on the Nkandla forest complex (NFC), a subtropical Afromontane forest. As a consequence of shifting agriculture, abandoned areas are nutrient poor, have depleted seed banks and may lack the ability to regenerate into species rich mature forest. The ability of forests to regenerate after disturbance effects is extremely important for the maintenance of ecological diversity and the stability of forest ecosystems. The present study focused on the recovery of the NFC, after shifting agriculture was practised along the forest margins. The NFC was sampled to determine: (1) how vegetation structure, composition and plant species diversity differ between regrowth forest and undisturbed forest ; (2) how continued disturbance and subsequent land use affects the rate of recovery and regeneration of secondary forest ; and (3) what species establishment pattern, if any, does the path of recovery follow during succession? Four different types of forest were sampled, disturbed margin (DM) forest, disturbed interior (DI) forest , undisturbed margin (UM) forest and undisturbed interior (UI) forest. The study showed that recovery does occur and that in the NFC recovery patterns (in terms of species diversity trends, biomass and basal areas) are similar to those found in other tropical and sub-tropical regions. Floristic recovery proceeded in a way that required the prerequisite establishment of forest margin tree species that would ultimately lead to a climax condition described by undisturbed interior forest. Unimodal trends were found for stem density and species richness across all four forest types, with basal area increasing steadily from disturbed to undisturbed interior forest. These forest types and their floral composition and structure described a gradient of decreasing disturbance, with disturbed margin forest being the most disturbed type. Continued harvesting of selected species is detrimental to the survival of these species. Analyses showed that Rapanea melanophloeos, Cassipourea gummiflua, Curtisia dentata, Ochna natalitia, Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa and Strychnos henningsii have been overused. Continued harvesting could result in critically low densities of these species and even their local extinction.Item Regeneration failure and the Acacia karroo successional pathway in coastal dune forests in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.(2007) Boyes, Lauren J.; Lawes, Michael John.; Griffiths, Megan Elizabeth.Monospecific stands of Acacia karroo establish naturally on disturbed coastal dunes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. While the A. karroo successional pathway is successful in rehabilitating mined dunes at the Richards Bay Minerals mining company (RBM), the same pathway has become arrested in the coastal dune forest at Cape Vidal in the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park. This study examines the efficacy of the A. karroo successional pathway for restoring disturbed coastal dune forests. Dispersal of seeds and successful recruitment of seedlings are essential for habitat restoration. Seed and seedling banks were compared between previously disturbed A. karroo stands and adjacent forest at Cape Vidal. Different seed bank composition and higher seed bank richness in the forest suggest that seed dispersal into A. karroo stands is limited. Protected seed banks in A. karroo stands had increased seedling richness, indicating that dispersal limitation does not fully explain the lack of seedling establishment. At RBM, the seed bank richness of A. karroo stands increased with age since mining. While cumulative species richness of the seed bank of the oldest A. karroo stand at RBM was marginally lower than that at Cape Vidal, successful rehabilitation at RBM is associated with low seedling mortality. Consequently, forest tree species richness is high at RBM in the A. karroo stands and is converging on natural forest richness and composition. Although seed dispersal is reduced, it does not totally limit establishment of forest tree species in A. karroo stands at Cape Vidal, which implicates a post-establishment factor. Soil fertility potentially reduces seed germination and seedling growth. Soil nutrients in A. karroo stands at Cape Vidal were similar to those in the adjacent forest, and total nitrogen levels in A. karroo stands at Cape Vidal were higher than at RBM. Thus, soil conditions were unlikely to be limiting tree regeneration in A. karroo stands. Total nitrogen accumulated in the oldest stand at RBM at a rate of 10.0 g.m2.y(1 and a similarly rapid rate occurred at Cape Vidal. Therefore the A. karroo stands were not nitrogen limited. Nitrogen supplementation experiments at Cape Vidal demonstrated that a range of forest tree species establish in A. karroo stands regardless of nitrogen level, but there is low survival of seedlings. Thus, nitrogen availability is not arresting succession at Cape Vidal. Herbivory can also inhibit seedling recruitment. Selective feeding may enhance the persistence of species with defences against herbivory, such as A. karroo, ultimately altering the tree community composition. Browsing and trampling by large mammalian herbivores in A. karroo stands at Cape Vidal decreased survival and growth of forest tree seedlings. Large herbivores such as kudu, waterbuck, bushbuck and red duiker preferentially used the A. karroo stands as they offer abundant food and their topography allowed easy movement. This topdown pressure reduced recruitment, growth, and survival of seedlings of undefended species. Few wild herbivores occur at RBM, which allowed succession to proceed unhindered, ultimately restoring coastal dune forest at this site. Despite successful rehabilitation of coastal dune forest on mined dunes at RBM, limited seed dispersal and high levels of herb ivory have arrested succession at Cape Vidal. Thus, the A. karroo successional pathway must be implemented only after careful consideration of site-specific factors such as distance to a source of propagules and the intensity of herbivory in the system. In areas where herbivore densities are high, management interventions focusing on reducing herb ivory and encouraging visitation by seed dispersers are necessary for the successful use of this successional pathway.Item Resource quantification, use and sustainable management of coastal forests in the eastern Cape province.(2002) Obiri, John Angoro Festus.; Lawes, Michael John.Indigenous forests of South Africa are few, small in size and highly fragmented, yet they face intense exploitation particularly in the rural areas. Management of these forests is challenging. High rural dependency on forests and the need to ensure the maintenance of the forest ecological processes that maintain biodiversity and ecosystem integrity are at odds with one another. Rural needs from forests are mainly short-term and interfere with the longer cycle of ecosystem maintenance. In Umzimvubu District of Eastern Cape Province forest management through sustainable use is hampered by a lack of information about the forests' ecology, resource availability and exploitation patterns. Thus it is difficult to set quotas or sustainable harvesting levels. This study addresses these challenges by tackling crosscutting themes of (1) forest policy and use, (2) forest resource availability and exploitation and, (3) the ecological processes of forest regeneration - all vital components for sustainable forest management. Using questionnaires it was found that all forest stakeholders (i.e. forest resource users and managers) were opposed to a ban on forest resource use but agreed to regulated harvesting. Although the new forest policy advocates the devolution of forest management from the state to communities, resource users preferred a greater role for the state in forest management than expected. Given the choice stakeholders selected state forest management over community forest management. However, the combination of roles of the state and communities in forest management, as exemplified by the new policy of participatory forest management (PFM) is probably the most applicable management practice, although it is not without its problems. Tree species are the focus of this study. Trees were largely used for fuelwood, medicinal purposes, craftwork, fencing posts and building poles and involved twenty species. Poles and posts were indiscriminately harvested from the medium (10-20cm dbh) tree size-class. Fuelwood harvesting was selective and only certain species were used. Fuelwood harvesting is unsustainable because the average amount of deadwood produced by the forest marginally balanced that removed from forest as fuelwood. Similarly medicinal tree harvesting (largely through stem debarking) was unsustainable and at least 28% of the debarked trees died. Only one species (Macaranga capensis) could withstand the current stem bark harvesting pressure. Species suitable for pole and post harvesting were determined by a graphic method, based on linear-programming approach that examined the spatial scale or grain of regeneration of a species. The grain of a species is established by comparing the density of stems from a species at the forest canopy and sub-canopy levels and sanctions harvesting only if a species was adequately represented at both levels i.e., fine-grained. Only one species (Englerophytum natalense) met these requirements in all forests and could sustain high levels of pole and post exploitation. Harpephyllum caffrum and Heywoodia lucens are among the most coarse-grained species and their use is discouraged. A relatively high percentage of the forest is under gaps (7.8%) created via natural disturbances of windthrow (50%), breaking tree branches (20%) and snags (13%). Another 17% result from selective tree cutting activities. The gap-phase dynamics paradigm appears to play a minor role in forest tree regeneration, as gap-size niche-differentiation is weak and there is no gap-filling guild of pioneer species. A lottery paradigm best explains tree regeneration in gaps in the forests of Umzimvubu District. Although selective tree harvesting creates gaps, in moderation gap creation is unlikely to change the forests' species composition since there is no gap-filling guild that is favoured by gaps and recruitment is a chance event. Resource use in the forests of Umzimvubu District is unsustainable and PFM offers a viable option for managing these forests. Sustainable use of forest cannot be achieved without an integration of the multifaceted social and ecological issues of forest management and more importantly without prioritising and understanding the ecology of forests.Item Resprouting and multi-stemming and the role of the persistence niche in the structure and dynamics of subtropical coastal dune forest in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa.(2008) Nzunda, Emmanuel F.; Lawes, Michael John.; Griffiths, Megan Elizabeth.Resprouting is an important means of plant regeneration especially under conditions that do not favour regeneration through seeding such as frequent disturbances, low productivity, unfavourable soil conditions, extreme cold and limited understorey light availability. Sprouts may be advantageous over seedlings because they have higher survival and growth rates than seedlings, since they use resources from parent plants unlike seedlings that have to acquire their own resources. Resprouting is well documented for ecosystems that experience severe disturbances that damage aboveground biomass. For example, resprouting is important for plant persistence against fire in fire-prone savannas and Mediterranean shrub-lands, and hurricanes and cyclones in tropical forests. In these ecosystems, resprouting often results in multi-stemming, because this dilutes the risk of damage among many stems, improving the chances of individual survival. This study was conducted at coastal dune forest at Cape Vidal in north-eastern South Africa, where there is a high incidence of multi-stemmed trees due to resprouting in response to chronic disturbances of low severity. This study examines (1) the importance of resprouting to tree survival and dynamics in an environment where disturbance severity is low but pervasive, and (2) how this resprouting strategy differs from the more familiar sprouting response to severe disturbances such as fire and hurricanes. Analysis of the relationship between multi-stemming and a number of disturbances potentially causing multi-stemming revealed that stem leaning and substrate erosion were the most important disturbances associated with multi-stemming. There were fewer multistemmed trees on dune slacks that had a stable substrate and were protected from sea winds than on dune crests and slopes that had unstable substrate and were exposed to sea winds. Trees resprouted and became multi-stemmed from an early stage to increase their chances of survival against leaning caused by strong sea winds and erosion, and occasional slumping of the unstable dune sand substrate. These low severity disturbances are persistent and are referred to as chronic disturbances in this thesis. As a result of these chronic disturbances, both single and multi-stemmed trees had short stature because taller individuals that emerged above the tree canopy would be exposed to wind damage. Under chronic disturbances plants may manifest a phylogenetically determined sprouting response. However, in this study resprouting and multi-stemming were the results of the tree-disturbance interaction and not a property of a plant or species and were not phylogenetically constrained. Because the disturbances are predominantly of low severity, leaning trees were able to regain the vertical orientation of the growing section by turning upward (a process referred to as ‘turning up’ in this study) and hence survive without resprouting. Species that were prone to turning upward had a low incidence and degree of leaning of their individuals, low frequency of loss of primary stems and high abundance of individuals. Although turning up is less costly to the individual than resprouting, it could only be used by leaning trees that had small angles of inclination and were not eroded. High intensities of the latter require that individuals resprout to survive. The form and function of resprouting varied between seedlings and juvenile and mature trees. Resprouting in seedlings resulted in a single replacement shoot, unlike sprouting in juvenile and mature trees that resulted in multi-stemmed trees. Like sprouting in juvenile and mature trees, sprouting in seedlings was not phylogenetically constrained. Resprouting in seedlings increased seedling persistence; hence species with more sprout seedlings had larger individual seedlings and seedling banks. Resprouting in seedlings increased the chances of seedling recruitment, whereas resprouting in juvenile and mature trees increased the chances of an established plant maintaining its position in the habitat. After disturbances of high severity, which destroy the photosynthesizing parts, plants resprout using carbohydrates stored below- or above ground. In this study, good resprouters stored more carbohydrates both below- and above ground than poor resprouters. The carbohydrates were mobilized for resprouting after disturbance. More carbohydrates were stored in stems than in roots because the prevailing disturbances were mostly of low severity and hence above ground resources were readily available. Similar to storage by plants in severely disturbed habitats, carbohydrates were stored by reserve formation, which competes for carbohydrates with growth and maintenance and forms permanent storage, rather than accumulation, which temporarily stores carbohydrates in excess of demands for growth and maintenance. Stored carbohydrates are not necessary for resprouting of plants after disturbances of low severity because they can resprout using resources remobilized directly from the disturbed photosynthesizing parts. However, in this study, stored carbohydrates served as a bet-hedge against occasional severe disturbances that occurred in addition to chronic disturbances. Allocation of carbohydrates to permanent storage diverts them from growth and reproduction and hence good resprouters had lower growth rates, seed output, seed size and seedling recruitment than poor resprouters. However, the costs of these traits that resulted in low recruitment from seed by good resprouters, were compensated for by high persistence of established individuals of good resprouters through recruitment of sprout stems. This study demonstrates that resprouting is not only advantageous in severely disturbed environments, but also in environments where disturbances are of low severity but nevertheless confer an advantage on individuals that persist. Thus in forest environments where aboveground biomass is seldom destroyed and individuals are relatively long-lived, resprouting can confer significant fitness and selective advantage on individuals.Item Sexual selection of multiple ornaments in the red-collared widowbird.(2001) Pryke, Sarah R.; Lawes, Michael John.; Andersson, Staffan.Although sexual selection often explains the evolution and maintenance of a single male ornament, it is unclear how the multicomponent nature of most sexual displays evolves. Theoretical models suggest that handicap signalling should converge on a single most informative quality indicator, whereas additional signals are more likely to be arbitrary Fisherian traits, amplifiers, or exploitations of receiver psychology. Despite the predictions that multiple handicap signals are unlikely to be stable, the male nuptial plumage of the highly polygynous (ca. 3, but up to 9 actively nesting females) red-collared widowbird Euplectes ardens comprises two classic quality-indicating avian ornaments (handicaps); a long graduated tail (22 cm) and a red carotenoid throat patch (collar). To investigate the evolution and maintenance of these handicaps in the red-collared widowbird, a population was studied in the Hilton district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, where these small (males ca. 20 g) African weaverbirds (Ploeceidae) inhabit a grassy valley during the breeding season. Multivariate selection analyses, used to investigate net, direct and indirect female selection, demonstrated an unusually strong fitness effect of natural tail length (47%) on male reproductive success (the order and total number of nests acquired). There were no other effects of morphology, ectoparasite load, display rate, territory quality, tail asymmetry or collar measures (hue, brightness and size) on reproductive success, suggesting that females base their mate choice exclusively on only one handicap signal, extreme tail elongation. Although ignored in mate choice, there is strong evidence that the variable carotenoid collar (ranging from yellow to red) functions as a status or agonistic signal in male contest competition for territories. Compared to 'floating' males (that did not establish a territory in the area), resident males had a 60% larger and 23 nm 'redder' (longwave hue) collar. Model presentations also corroborated the status signalling function of the collar as territorial males were less aggressive towards conspecific models with intense collar displays, and males with greater carotenoid investment responded more aggressively to the models. In captive experiments, non-breeding brown males painted with red 'collars' dominated orange painted, control brown, novel blue collared and testosterone-implanted males in dyadic contests over food resources. In addition, experiments in the field demonstrated that males manipulated with larger and redder collars established and maintained territories in the area, whereas most males with small, orange or blackened collars failed to establish or retain territories. Thus the size and particularly redness of the costly carotenoid collar reliably signals male status and fighting ability in male contests. The unique negative phenotypic relationship between the expression of tail length and carotenoid pigmentation, suggests strong overlapping developmental costs (and allocation conflicts) between the two handicap ornaments. This tradeoff is predicted to be strongest between signals with the same or similar costs. Although current theory predicts that multiple handicaps should be evolutionary unstable, the coexistence of multiple costly ornaments in the red-collared widowbird is stable because of selection by different receivers, females and males (i.e., multiple receivers).Item Socio-economic and environment impacts on the utilisation of umSimbithi Tree (Milletia grandis) in Eastern Cape : a case study of Mt. Thesiger Forest, Pondoland.(1997) Obiri, John Angoro Festus.; Lawes, Michael John.; Granger, James Edmund.Wood products from Milletia grandis (E. Mey) skeels (umSimbithi), a prominent tree in the coastal scarp forests ofPondoland, form an important economic base for the craft workers in Urnzimvubu District ofthe Eastern Cape. The local carving industry draws considerable income in a place where employment opportunities are scarce, poverty is rife and financial burden and dependency is high. Despite the curio trade being perceived as important by the local communities, little is known about this craft work industry or its impact on the forest especially the sustainability of the wood resource base. Resource availability and impacts of harvesting were assessed at Mount Thesiger Forest Reserve (MTFR) through sampling plots and social surveys oflocal carvers and curio traders. Stem size-class distributions ofstanding trees and stumps were used to investigate the present quantity, past harvesting patterns and distribution ofM grandis within the forests. Line transects sampling confirmed umSimbithi as a forest margin species penetrating to about 50 metres into the forest from the edge and its. current use was found to be unsustainable. Current monitoring and management of most State forests in the Eastern Cape is inadequate, and although a harvest ban has been served, it has only led to and encouraged poaching. Social surveys indicated that the quality of monitoring and sustainability of wood stocks in the Headmen forests appear better than in State forests and this raises hope for successful comanagement structures in the area. Craftwood production and derived income varied from one month to another depending on wood availability, size and shape of stems, with straight stems being most preferred. MontWy income per carver was estimated between R960 to RIIOO while the annual yield for the estimated 100 carvers in the communities surrounding MTFR approximated RI.l million. It was observed that higher sales could be obtained if (1) the amount of wood wasted during harvests and carving could be minimised and (2) the craft products were marketed in the lucrative up markets such as Johannesburg, Durban and Maseru. Interviews with 30 carvers pointed to several problems most of them originating from the stoppage of harvest permits following the ban on umSimbithi. Various recommendations addressing carver's needs and promoting sustainable resource management are proposed. These include (1) establishing an appropriate land tenure system, (2) reviewing the permit system, (3) strengthening the institutional capacity ofthe Forest Department and (4) enhancing efforts on community forest outreach through the extension system. Above all, and to achieve sustainable forest management in Pondoland, tenurial rights needs to be addressed and the options of co-management, community management and privatisation are discussed. It was noted that for sustainable development to be realised in Pondoland, co-management ofnatural resources is important and this must be supported by introduction ofother economic activities that would alleviate pressure off the forests.Item The socioecology and conservation of the Samango monkey (Cercopithecus mitis erythrarchus) in Natal.(1990) Lawes, Michael John.; Perrin, Michael Richard.; Henzi, S. Peter.The samango monkey (Cercopithecus mitis erythrarchus) is the southern most representative of the polytypic mitis group. The samango is also the only truly arboreal guenon to have radiated as far as 30°S. At southern latitudes a greater seasonality of climate and an attendant seasonal shift in food availability is expected to restrict the foraging strategy of the arboreal guenon. In the absence of arboreal congenerics and few frugivorous bird and bat species, the samango experiences a level of competitive release at Cape Vidal not found in other equatorially located mitis populations. In this thesis I examine and contrast the diet and feeding behaviour of the mitis species group. In this way I illustrate the consequences of seasonality of food abundance and competitive release on the foraging strategy of the samango, and provide an explanation for the unique distribution of the samango monkey as the only arboreal guenon in southern Africa. Despite seasonality in climate and abundance of food resources, my data show that, in general, samango monkeys at Cape Vidal are not food limited. For this reason Cape Vidal samangos have large troop sizes (25+), use small home ranges (15 ha) and have the highest density (2.02 ind/ha) of any C. mitis population researched to date. Fruit forms an important part of the diet year-round and therefore, energy and carbohydrate are abundant. There is very little intra-group aggression for food, although interindividual distances are greatest when feeding. There are age-sex differences in the diet, and adult males eat more fruit while females eat more leaves than other age-sex classes. The most important aspect of the feeding strategy of the samango is concerned with obtaining adequate protein in the diet, and throughout the range of the mitis group, populations differ most in feeding strategies used to secure protein-rich foods, such as young leaves, flowers and invertebrates. In this respect seasonal nutrient (protein) availability, rather than seasonality of food abundance per se, is the most limiting component of the forest environment. Unlike equatorial populations of mitis that derive most of their protein from insects, samangos are unable to adopt a similar strategy. Insects were available to the monkeys, and then only in low numbers, in the wet summer season at Cape Vidal. Samango monkeys, therefore, make greater use of a wider variety of plant items for protein acquisition. During the wet summer months, insects, flowers and young leaves are used by samangos to obtain sufficient protein for important reproductive activities, such as lactation, and initial growth of the infant. During the drier winter months only mature leaves and small quantities of young leaves are available as protein resources, consequently samangos use more mature leaf in the diet than other C. mitis populations. Adaptations of the gut and specialized gut microflora permit this high degree of folivory in the diet (Bruorton and Perrin 1988) of the samango monkey. This is a characteristic that does not appear to be shared with other arboreal guenons. In so far as protein is essential for reproduction, folivory in c. mitis has been important in permitting this arboreal guenon species-group to radiate into southern latitudes where protein is more seasonally available. The ability of samango monkeys to eat large quantities of leaves at anyone time, accounts for their unique position as the only arboreal guenon species in southern Africa.Item A survey of conservation attitudes of the rural communities around Thathe forest, Northern Province.(1999) Sikhitha, Mbengeni Eric.; Lawes, Michael John.Indigenous forests are an integral part of rural communities in Africa, and they are socio-ecologically managed and conserved by customary laws. Most of these forests are important reserves of cultural and ecological values, although they are threatened by modern economic and political developments and often by foreign religious intrusion. Based on this background the Thathe sacred forest in the Zoutpansberg mountains of the Northern Province, in South Africa, was chosen for investigation. The perceptions and conservation attitudes of the rural communities living around the forest were investigated. In addition, the contribution of the traditional ethics of the local people to forest biodiversity management were also assessed. The extent to which the rural communities attach consumptive and/or non-consumptive values to the Thathe forest was examined for insight to the survival of the forest into the future. Data collection included a field survey, interviews with key informants, structured and semi-structured interviews, and a documentary survey (documents or records such as monthly or annual reports of an institution like the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) about its activities, and government gazettes). Responses of 201 interviewees from around the Thathe forest were analysed. Data was arranged by age, sex, educational background and area of residence. The majority of the respondents (76.6%) across the gender categories regarded the forest as sacred, while 20.4% felt it is an area of conservation importance. A strong cultural link between the local people and the forest is inferred from these positive attitudes! in spite of a history of forced removals of the surrounding communities from the Thathe-Vondo forest area. The attitudes of the people around the forest are wide-spread and consistent across the tribal areas. Nevertheless, cultural usage of the forest has waned in recent years (a consequence of restrictions on access to the forest) and few people (13.4%) actively use it for cultural rituals. Based on the research findings it is imperative that an attempt is made to reconcile the local people and the government institution managing indigenous forests and policing forestry in general (DWAF). The relevance of conventional conservation principles must be brought to the attention of the local people! and these ought to be integrated with cultural methods of forest resource management and conservation. This will serve as a foundation for sustainable indigenous forest resource management in Thathe forest.