Browsing by Author "Joseph, Rudigi Rukema."

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Assessing conflict resolution and peace building strategies in democratic systems: a study of Yobe State, Nigeria 2009-2017.
(2020) Abideen, Abeeb Muhammed.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
Since 2009, there has been an increasing spate of violent conflicts in the North-Eastern part of Nigeria. The crises have defied several efforts aimed at resolving them and now require urgent attention from all stakeholders to find a lasting solution. The Boko Haram insurgency and other terrorists’ activities, especially the Fulani Herdsmen/farmers’ conflict has resulted in a humanitarian crisis in which over 20,000 people have been killed and about 2.6 million displaced with property worth millions of Naira destroyed. The crises which are now extending to other parts of Nigeria and the sub-region of West Africa needs to be handled with all seriousness before the situation gets out of hand. Several strategies have been employed in resolving the crises, such as the use of the military, legal adjudication, setting up of dialogue committee, legislative approach and proposed granting of amnesty to the insurgents and terrorist groups. However, all these measures have not been able to resolve the crises. This research work assessed the different strategies that have been employed to stem the crises in the North-East with a view to identifying the loop-holes and bottlenecks that have deterred or hindered the resolution of the conflicts. Survey method was employed in the collection of data through the instrumentality of questionnaire. “Interviews were conducted in order to get first-hand information about the root causes of the conflicts from the people at the grassroots who are most affected by the crises. It is hoped that a thorough understanding of the causes, as well as, obstacles hindering the resolution of the conflicts will provide a headway toward finding alternative strategies such as the South Africa Truth Reconciliation Commission (TRC) and other Afro-centric strategies that could be combined with renewed democratic strategies towards finding lasting solutions to the lingering problems that have been on for over a decade and threatening the corporate existence of the country. Findings revealed the urgent need to reappraise the current counter insurgency strategies and money laundering Acts which are the major strategies employed in resolving the ongoing conflicts, “Whilst employing alternative strategies (hybridization) with more focus on political economy approach which centres on addressing the root cause of conflicts such as poverty, unemployment, inequality and with emphases on preventive methods to conflict resolution and peace building.
Between hope and uncertainty: a no returning journey of African graduates from the United States of America to their home countries.
(2022) Nkoko, Mosa.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
International Migration is steadily growing and has become a global phenomenon that is unavoidable. In Africa, there are thousands of people who move to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, and Germany to name a few and they are made up of highly skilled migrants from their respective home countries. Migrants who are considered highly skilled not only consists of occupation professionals but also students who have completed their university education in their home countries and decided to further their studies abroad with the hope to come back and better their lives and that of their families. However, after the completion of their studies, most of them decide to stay behind in the host country. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the reasons why Sub-Saharan Africans; South African, Kenyans and Nigerians in particular are reluctant to go back home upon completion of their studies and decided to stay in the U.S. The appropriate research paradigm that was used in this study is pragmatic because it accepts a mixed and multimethod research. Therefore, the investigation consisted of mixed methods; quantitative and qualitative research methods whereby data was collected by means of online surveys which had 224 respondents under quantitative data collection and 21 respondents under qualitative research methods who completed their university education in their home countries and decided to pursue their graduate degree in the U.S. The data was collected in two distinct phases; first the quantitative data, followed by the qualitative data collection which informed the quantitative results. The students were sampled using non-probability sampling namely snowball which included purposive sampling and the same individuals were included in both data collections. The eligibility criteria in this study were that the participants had to be citizens in their country of origin, have graduated from any accredited university in their home country, have graduated with a master’s or doctorate degree from any accredited University in the U.S. and have stayed a year or more in the U.S after completion of their studies. Additionally, the researcher identified four individuals who fit the criteria and were willing to participate. These individuals also knew other relevant willing participants who fit the criteria and helped the researcher to locate them. Those participants too referred the researcher to other individuals and so on and forth. Since the relevant participants were difficult to locate, purposive sampling helped the researcher to find the potential participants through internet recruitment. These participants were chosen according to the criteria that have been set. The theories used in this research study are World systems theory and Rational Choice theory as they are suitable to evaluate the reasons why African graduates do not return to their home countries after completing their studies abroad. Based on the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data of this study, opportunities that include employment, better wages compared to their home country, higher standard of living compared to their home country, research training opportunities and scholarships have contributed to the African graduate’s decision to stay in the host country. Thus, Economic factors have strongly been identified as contributing to their decision to stay in the U.S after completing their studies. The findings revealed that they first decide to migrate to acquire a high level of qualification with the hope that it results in advancement of their careers and when offered opportunities where they are currently living and the opportunities are better than that which can be offered in their home countries, they decide to stay. This study also examined their experiences after deciding to remain in the U.S and despite acculturative stress such as perceived racism, loneliness, and stress; they have had positive experiences which entailed being offered employment and better salary. In addition, this study examined their attitudes and perceptions after deciding to remain in the Unites States, majority of them consider it as land of opportunities. It can be concluded in this research study that even though brain-drain analysts have not settled the debate of whether it is beneficial or detrimental to the sending countries as countries experience it differently, it is evident from the previous literature that the negative impacts of the brain drain outweighs the positive ones. The inequality of economic, political, and social levels between developing and developed countries determine the flow of migration. Without a doubt highly skilled individuals will always gravitate to countries that offer them opportunities to use their skills and can better their lives and that of their families resulting in sending countries losing professionals needed for development. Therefore, it is recommended that origin countries should look inward and address the brain-drain by implementing policies that will make improvements in their countries to attract them back or create channels that will assist in them contributing their knowledge and skills even when they are abroad. Finally, this study has contributed to the body of knowledge on international student-migration and a no return of African graduates specifically from South Africa, Kenya and Nigeria who decided to remain in the U.S upon completion of their studies. Additionally, it has contributed to the body brain-drain knowledge in academia and higher education, African graduates’ communities/countries, stakeholders and most importantly, policy makers as it has shed light on the nature and implications of the emigration of highly skilled/educated professionals. Key words: international students, migration, international migration, study abroad, brain drain, African graduates, human flight capital, globalization.
Civil society organizations and democratic consolidation in Nigeria's fourth republic: an appraisal of Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC)
(2019) Ayegbusi, Talabi Rasheed.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
The transition from military autocracy to democracy in Nigeria came after a tortuous, brave and determined struggle. Civil society organizations engaged in agitations and protests that led to the eventual withdrawal of the military from governance in Nigeria. However, after more than a decade and a half year of democratic experience, the rising hope among Nigerians is gradually fading away, giving way to apprehension and despondency. Whereas civil society is ubiquitous in academic and political discourse, labour unions are far less popular as subjects of analysis. It is in this context that this thesis examined critically the role of civil society organisation (with a special focus on Nigeria Labour Congress) in the democratic consolidation process in Nigeria’s fourth Republic. The study adopted the qualitative approach and group theory as the theoretical framework. The data for this research work was collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data were collected through interviews with relevant stakeholders on labour and democratic issues. A total of twenty-eight (28) respondents were interviewed using interview schedule. The secondary data for the study were derived from books, journal articles, magazines and newspaper articles, reliable and verifiable internet materials. While primary data obtained were analysed using the combination of both the manual qualitative method and the Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS), the existing data used were subjected to substantive and extensive analysis through the instrumentality of content validity, content analysis and textual criticism. The study noted that Nigeria Labour Congress (as a member of civil society organizations) played significant roles in the transition from military autocracy to electoral democracy. The study also noted that while the aftermath of the transition had attracted some concerted efforts from organized labour geared towards democratic consolidation, the momentum of the struggle, as well as the vibrancy of labour unions in Nigeria, is not satisfactory. The findings of this study are largely base on fieldwork which is a significant departure from desk analysis that has defined most works on the phenomenon. In order to enhance the effectiveness of organized labour in Nigeria, the study recommended that: first, the issue of centralized trade unionism should be constitutionally restored; second, the government should restrain itself from interfering in matters that are strictly internal to the unions and lastly, the leaders should not be partisan in politicking.
Climate governance through indigenous knowledge systems for sustainable development in Mutoko District of Mashonaland East Province, Zimbabwe.
(2020) Mugambiwa, Shingirai Stanley.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
Climate governance has over the years become a topical issue among scholars and policymakers. The concept has come into prominence as a result of the severe effects that climate change has on the livelihoods of communities around the world. In Zimbabwe, rural communities have been grappling with various climate-related challenges occurring in the country since the early 1990s. Nevertheless, the current climate change theories have not effectively established a comprehensive system of climate governance that is within the context of Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Therefore, the main aim of this sociological inquiry was to explore climate governance using Indigenous Knowledge Systems in pursuit of sustainable development in a Zimbabwean rural community. The study takes a swipe at adopting either a purely positivist or constructivist paradigm despite the fact that the constructivist paradigm is considered important for understanding Indigenous Knowledge and practices that are employed by local communities to adapt to climate change risks. As such, the study employs an approach that acknowledges the social interpretation and construction of IKS climate governance necessitated by grounded theory. The study adopted a qualitative method and data was collected through in-depth interviews and a focus group discussion. Grounded theory and Thematic Content Analysis were adopted as methods of data analysis. This qualitative enquiry linked climate change with rural livelihoods opportunities in an effort to determine how the impacts of climate change affect rural communities vis-à-vis sustainable development. The inquiry was executed through the theoretical specs of a triangulation of Grounded theory, Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and Afrocentricity. The study found that knowledge of climate change plays a pivotal role in paving way for IKS climate governance. The study also revealed that indigenous climate change adaptation dominates the communities’ adaptation options and it stands as a key informant for Scientific Methods employed and IKS climate governance. Lastly, the major contribution of the study was the development of an IKS climate governance conceptual model that was informed by the findings of the study.
An exploration of rural communities' and government response strategies to drought in South Africa : the case of Msinga villages in KwaZulu-Natal province.
(2010) Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.; Kaye, Sylvia.
This thesis seeks to explore and examine the application and use of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the management of drought through a case study of Msinga village communities in the northern parts of KwaZulu-Natal Province, paying specific attention to droughts that have been recorded and that prevail in the area. Government's policy aimed at mitigating and the effect of drought on communities and its effectiveness is examined as well. The question is whether government policy measures supplement rural communities' drought management strategies. The findings demonstrated that droughts are endemic in the study area and that drought-management strategies are as intrinsic to local livelihood systems as are seasonal-adjustment strategies. The findings also indicated that communities in Msinga have knowledge of drought management. However, this knowledge contributes very little to the management of drought. The findings also demonstrated that there is poor capacity in government to deal with disasters and this has serious repercussions for poor rural communities in Msinga. Disaster management requires disaster reduction, planning, and capacity to reduce the losses borne by impoverished households. This process will be more effective if there is efficient mobilization of resources, rapid responses, and a long-term strategy to prevent drought and reduce the risks of vulnerable groups, rather than transferring risks. The new legislation, the Disaster Management Act of 2002, should ensure that any form of financial and bureaucratic bottlenecks are eliminated so that assistance reaches people more quickly and is based on developing a long-term programme targeting the reduction of risks from the drought prevailing in Msinga. It is also important that NGOs in the area are empowered and involved in disaster management and are able to play their full role.
Integrated curriculum in Lesotho: challenges encountered by learners through their teachers’ views.
(2019) Phosisi, Itumeleng Juliet.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
The Ministry of Education and Training in Lesotho (MOET), for the first time since the country attained its independence, published the Curriculum and Assessment Policy in 2009.The initiative was influenced by the challenges brought by the HIV AIDS pandemic, increasing poverty, climate and environmental degradation as well as other needs emanating from globalization. MOET has embarked on the review of the entire primary and secondary education curricula, with the purpose of making education at these levels accessible, relevant, and of efficient and best quality hence the formulation of this new curriculum. The focus of the literature that the study was aware of was mostly on the challenges that teachers encountered with the implementation of the new curriculum. Narrowing down to the case of Lesotho, the integrated curriculum had recently been implemented and the study conducted by Selepe (2016) mainly focused on the challenges that the teachers encounter with its implementation, while Raselimo and Mahao (2015) assessed the opportunities and the threats that this policy could pose and Ramokoena (n.d) assessed the conflict between policy and practice. It was evident that there were few studies pertaining integrated curriculum in Lesotho and furthermore, a knowledge gap regarding the issue of the learners encountering challenges as the curriculum is implemented was evident. The study therefore sought to explore the challenges that the learners in six primary schools within the district of Leribe face while this curriculum is being implemented. It additionally intended to find out if there are sufficient relevant resources to help these learners adapt to the new curriculum innovation. The study intended to explore the learners’ challenges through their teachers’ views because the learners were believed to be too young to provide sufficient information. The qualitative method was considered appropriate to explore these challenges and data was collected using in-depth interviews from 5 grades three and five grades six teachers from five different primary schools. Purposive and convenience sampling were used to locate the sample. The findings indicated that the learners encounter challenges and most of them were associated with too much content and insufficient time in and the issue of not repeating grades. The findings also showed that there are insufficient resources in all grades to help the learners adapt into this new curriculum. Lastly, the study recommended that there should be a strategic way to encourage learners to gain interest in their schoolwork and put effort towards effective learning. It was also recommended that the stake holders should look intensively into the issue of insufficient resources that are relevant to the implementation of the policy.
Perceptions on condom use: a comparative study of African migrants and South Africans in Durban’s inner city (KZN, South Africa)
(2019) Balekelayi, Bakankengesha.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
This study aims to examine perceptions on the use of condoms among both South Africans and African migrants living in Durban’s inner city. To explore and analyze the role of culture in making the choice or no choice on condoms use among African migrants and host communities living in Durban’s inner city. South Africa has the biggest and highest-profile of HIV infection in the world, with an estimated seven million people living with HIV in 2015. The use of condoms has been identified as a significant and effective prevention tool against HIV infection. Its promotion amongst sexually active populations is endorsed by the World Health Organization. Both African migrants and South Africans emerged as one of the most vulnerable groups to HIV infection. It is worth noting that migrants moving from the country of origin to the hosting country; hold onto, values and beliefs from the country of origin; while the economic, social, and political situation is completely different from the hosting country. This leads us to believe that the perceptions of African migrants may be influenced by their culture and the decision they make to use condoms. To this end, it is important to understand how culture shapes and reshapes one’s understanding and perceptions of choices made; in this case the use of condoms in the face of HIV/AIDS prevention. It is possible to know their views because South Africans and African migrants are living together but with different cultures. The knowledge of South Africans (men and women) in terms of condoms (male and female) use is high. South Africans are ahead in terms of condoms use. They revealed that media, schools, hospitals, and friends are some of the avenues (places) where information was gained to enhance knowledge of condom use. In South Africa, the studies that analyze the association between migrants and condom use did so within the ambit of HIV prevention practices. Lurie and Colleague conducted a cross-sectional study to investigate the association between migration and HIV infection among migrant and non-migrant men and their partners. They found that migration is an independent risk factor for HIV infection among men as they tend to have multiple partners and do not use condoms. Zuma and others found similar results among migrant urban women in Carletonville, South Africa. The researcher adopted a qualitative Research and descriptive research design with in-depth semi-structures interviews. Purposive sampling methods were used to select participations who met the inclusion criteria and the interview was for 40 min. Data collected was thematic. The theories of Planned Behavior and Reasoned Action were used to design this study and data collection. The chosen methodology of using in-depth interviews proved to be effective in this regard. The study is a qualitative research that utilizes purposive sampling and snow balling as its methodology to investigate and obtain findings as to the attitudes and perceptions on the use of condoms among males and females (African migrants and South Africans) living in Durban’s inner city. It will employ in-depth open-ended questions developed for interviews in English and French. There will be twenty participant cohorts who were interviewed, 5 males and 5females from the migrant community and 5 males and 5 females aged 19 to 41 years from the South African community living in the inner city of Durban. The research findings will indicate the different views of African migrants and South Africans regarding their perceptions towards the use of condoms.
The political economy of the Eritrean war of independence 1961-1991=Umnotho Wezepolitiki Wempi Yenkululeko Yase-Eritrea 1961 – 1991.
(2021) Ahmed, Mustafa Mohammedosman.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
The political economy of the Eritrean War of Independence (EWI) examines the power relationships that were unfolded during the War. In this study, political economy refers to the making and administering of power. The political economy approach to the EWI presents a new theoretical perspective to understanding war. The making and administering of power manifests itself through power struggle that occurs during war. Therefore, power struggle determines power relationships of the forces that are involved in the war. This study entails three major themes. The first theme addresses the prelude to the EWI and the background to the power struggle unfolded during the War. The second theme addresses international involvements in the wars of the horn of Africa and their impacts on the EWI. The third theme examines the formation of the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) that started the EWI in 1961 and its implosion in 1969. This study used qualitative research method and data was collected through in-depth interviews and from written personal accounts of the EWI. It also used secondary sources such as books and articles. The target population of this study were veterans who participated in the EWI and served at different leadership positions during the War. The rationale behind selecting the veterans of the EWI who served in different leadership positions during the EWI. Their leadership positions enabled them to possess comprehensive knowledge of the power struggle unfolded during the War. In-depth interviews with 20 Eritrean veterans who participated in the EWI at leadership levels and critical positions were conducted. The findings of the study are presented in four themes. The first theme discusses the prevalence of power struggle during the EWI. The prevalence of power struggle included individual power struggle, negative experiences of failed military administrative structures, conflict among military commanders, the role of reform movement, and implosion of ELF. The second theme discusses how and why civil war ensued among different armed factions in the aftermath of the implosion of the ELF. The third theme focusses on the breakaway groups that split from the ELF, and the formation of the Eritrean Peoples’ Liberation Front (EPLF). The fourth and final theme compares the ELF and the EPLF as two competing and rival armed organizations during the second half of the 30-year war period, and how the EPLF won the war of independence. The final theme also highlights the contribution of the EWI to the State formation in Eritrea. Iqoqa Umnotho wezombusazwe weMpi yeNkululeko yase-Eritrea (EWI) uhlola ubudlelwano bamandla obembuleka phakathi nempi. Kulolu cwaningo, umnotho wezepolitiki usho ukwenziwa nokuphatha amandla. Indlela yomnotho wezepolitiki ku-EWI iveza umbono omusha wethiyori wokuqonda impi. Ukwenziwa nokuphathwa kwamandla kuzibonakalisa ngombango wamandla okwenzeka phakathi nempi. Ngakho-ke, umzabalazo wamandla unquma ubudlelwano bamandla amabutho athintekayo empini. Lolu cwaningo luqukethe izindikimba ezintathu ezinkulu. Ingqikithi yokuqala ikhuluma ngesandulela se-EWI kanye nesizinda sombango wamandla owenzeka phakathi nempi. Ingqikithi yesibili ikhuluma ngokubandakanyeka kwamazwe ngamazwe ezimpini zophondo lwase-Afrika kanye nomthelela wazo ku-EWI. Indikimba yesithathu ibheka ukwakhiwa kwe-Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) eyaqala i-EWI ngo-1961 kanye nokufakwa kwayo ngo-1969. Lolu cwaningo lusebenzise indlela yocwaningo olusezingeni eliphezulu futhi idatha yaqoqwa ngezingxoxiswano ezijulile kanye nama-akhawunti womuntu siqu abhaliwe we-EWI. Iphinde yasebenzisa imithombo yesibili njengezincwadi nezindatshana. Inani labantu okuhloswe ngalo kulolu cwaningo kwakungomakadebona ababambe iqhaza ku-EWI futhi basebenze ezikhundleni zobuholi ezihlukene phakathi nempi. Isizathu sokukhetha omakadebona be-EWI abasebenze ezikhundleni ezahlukene zobuholi ngesikhathi se-EWI, izikhundla zabo zobuholi zabenza bakwazi ukuba nolwazi olunzulu ngombango wamandla owenzeka ngesikhathi sempi. Kwaba nezingxoxo ezijulile namakadebona ase-Eritrea angamashumi amabili (20) abambe iqhaza ku-EWI emazingeni obuholi nasezikhundleni ezibucayi. Okutholwe ocwaningweni kuvezwe ngezindikimba ezine. Indikimba yokuqala ixoxa ngokudlanga komzabalazo wamandla ngesikhathi se-EWI. Ukudlondlobala kombango wezikhundla kuhlanganisa umzabalazo wamandla ngamunye, izigameko ezimbi zezinhlaka zokuphatha zezempi ezihlulekile, ukungqubuzana phakathi kwabaphathi bezempi, indima yokuguquguquka, kanye nokufakwa kwe-ELF. Indikimba yesibili idingida ukuthi impi yombango yaqala kanjani futhi phakathi kwamaqembu ahlukene ahlomile ngemuva kokufakwa kwe-ELF. Indikimba yesithathu igxile emaqenjini ahlubukayo ahlukana ne-ELF, kanye nokwakhiwa kwe-Eritrean Peoples’ Liberation Front (EPLF). Indikimba yesine neyokugcina iqhathanisa i-ELF kanye ne-EPLF njengezinhlangano ezimbili ezihlomile eziqhudelanayo nezimbangi phakathi nengxenye yesibili yenkathi yempi yeminyaka engamashumi amathathu (30), nokuthi i-EPLF yanqoba kanjani impi yenkululeko. Itimu yokugcina iphinde igqamise umnikelo we-EWI ekwakhekeni kombuso e-Eritrea.
Pre and post-electoral violence dynamics in a fragile state: what is the sustainable solution to the electoral violence in Zimbabwe?
(2017) Makonye, Felix.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
Elections are a defining characteristic of the tenets for democracy, and thus form an integral part of the democratization process. Over the past three and a half decades, Zimbabwe’s electoral processes have been pervaded by pre and post-electoral violence dynamics throughout the country. The result has been electoral outcomes that are contestable and neither free nor fair thereby becoming the centrepiece of worldwide attention and condemnation by regional, international and other organizations. The purpose of this study is to inform policy on the holding of elections that are sustainable, peaceful, free and fair in Zimbabwe among other things such as to add the voice of scholarship on the extent to which violence has pervaded the country’s elections so that intervention strategies can be designed to rescue the situation. The objectives of this study are to identify the dynamics that lead to pre and post-electoral violence in Zimbabwe, to determine the existing mechanisms to stem pre and post-electoral violence in Zimbabwe and to contribute strategies to mitigate pre and post-electoral violence in Zimbabwe. The focus of the study is Zimbabwe’s electoral processes from independence in 1980 to the present day. The study is purely qualitative in its nature and it appeals to three theoretical frameworks namely the conflict transformation theory, theory of positive and negative peace and the human needs theory. The study found the dynamics pre and post-electoral violence as militarization, ethnicity, draconian legislations and war rhetoric among others. It further found the existing mechanisms to stem violence as the National Peace and Reconciliation Commission and legal recourse among others. The study concludes by suggesting contributions such as demilitarization, international supervision of elections and the presence of observers well before and after elections. All data were presented and analysed using NVIVO software.
SADC meditation in Zimbabwe: lost opportunity for lasting solution to the Zimbabwe crisis.
Chinyere, Petra Rumbidzai.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
Nearly a decade ago, a Government of National Unity (GNU) was established in Zimbabwe based on the Global Political Agreement (GPA) which was mediated by the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The unity government was a result of questionable elections which had seen President Robert Mugabe being defeated by Morgan Tsvangirai and Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) losing its parliamentary majority to the two Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) formations. Such a trajectory occurred in a country that had been ravaged by socio-economic woes for decades. The establishment of the GNU brought about short-term positive economic and political changes to the state of Zimbabwe. However, approximately seven years after its end, Zimbabwe has returned to the crisis that was meant to be addressed by the GNU. Consequently, the rationale behind this research was to establish whether the GNU in Zimbabwe was a lost opportunity upon which Zimbabwe’s crisis could have been solved. The study was informed by the Ripeness Theory, the Readiness Theory and the Elite Theory. It used a qualitative analytical approach in which data was collected through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and documentary search. The findings of the research revealed that the SADC-mediated GNU provided an opportunity to end Zimbabwe’s crisis but was affected by the approach used in its formation and implementation. While the SADC-mediated GNU ignored certain sections of the Zimbabwe community throughout its life, the differing interests of the parties impacted negatively on the operations of the agreement. The different political parties that constituted the GNU pursued party interest often ignoring the Global Political Agreement (GPA) itself. As a result, the set objectives of political, economic and security sector reforms among others were not realised. The SADC-mediated GNU thus failed to address Zimbabwe’s crisis. However, the GNU experienced some short-term successes especially in temporarily stabilizing the economy and bringing about political tolerance. Against such a backdrop, the study argued that GNU-related negotiations should be all-involving and all-encompassing for them to be successful. The SADC bloc’s elite-driven approach in dealing with crises situations ought to change as it has not yielded positive results. Additionally, the early warning signs of the bloc have failed and require reconsideration. At the national level, the state of Zimbabwe needs to consider adopting traits of the developmental state model to solve its unending crisis. These and some of the suggested solutions in the study will go a long way in solving crisis situations that may require unity governments and/or even assisting states to deal with economic and politically-related woes within the SADC region.
The secession of states as a strategy for resolving intra-state ethnic and religious conflicts in post-colonial Africa : the case of south Sudan.
(2017) Vhumbunu, Clayton Hazvinei.; Joseph, Rudigi Rukema.
The secession of South Sudan from Sudan in 2011, after a protracted and seemingly intractable conflict which started in 1955 on the eve of the county’s independence from colonial rule; presents a pertinent question on whether secession should be considered as a viable and sustainable strategy for resolving conflicts with ethnic and religious dimensions. This comes against a background of several secessionists movements in Africa, as in Algeria (State of Kabyle), Angola (Republic of Cabinda), Cameroon (Democratic Republic of Bakassi), Comoros (Anjouan), Ethiopia (State of Oromia and Ogaden), Mali (Azawad), Nigeria (State of Biafra), Senegal (Casamance Republic), Somalia (Republic of Somalia-Somaliland), Tanzania (Zanzibar), and Zambia (Barotseland), among others. These are by grievances such as marginalization, discrimination, oppression and different forms of injustices. Five years after secession, the conflicts in South Sudan and Sudan are still raging on and even intensifying, despite commendable regional and international mediation efforts through the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and the African Union (AU). Using the 2011 secession of South Sudan as case study, this study sought to examine the extent to which secession can be considered as a strategy to sustainably resolve intra-ethnic and religious conflicts in post-colonial African states. Methodologically, the study adopted a mixed methods research design which combines both qualitative and quantitative research methods, relying on interviews with experts, academics and researchers based in Zimbabwe as well as questionnaires administered to officials working in peacebuilding, humanitarian, media and development agencies in South Sudan. It used the Protracted Social Conflict Theory, Realist Conflict Theory and Conflict Transformation Theory as theoretical framework of analysis. The findings of the study revealed that whilst South Sudanese secession was a legal success as evidenced by the legitimate recognition and acceptance of the state as a member of the AU and the UN, there was no evidence of success of secession in South Sudan in as far as the securing of lasting peace and stability is concerned as there is continued inter-communal violence, inter-ethnic fights, unresolved border demarcation issues with the Republic of Sudan, and border disputes in Abyei, Blue Nile and South Kordofan states in post-secession South Sudan. The study concludes that secession cannot be regarded as a sustainable and viable strategy to resolve intra-state ethnic and religious conflicts as it usually over-simplify a conflict along ethnic, religious and regional identity lines thereby failing to address the underlying substantive causes of secessionist conflicts. The study further argues that at regional and continental level, the secession of states may threaten African unity and integration. However, in extreme cases where secession maybe unavoidable due to self-determination pressures, the study suggests that secession should be supported by effective transitional mechanisms accompanied by conflict transformation interventions aimed at transforming the power structures, institutions, systems, triggers of violence, attitudes of conflict actors, and transforming mindset of the elite/leadership so as to secure sustainable peace and stability. In order to sustainably resolve seemingly intractable protracted intra-state ethnic and religious conflicts in post-colonial African states, the study highly recommends that multi-ethnic and multi-religious societies should consider ‘non-secession’ alternatives such as Federalism, Consociational Democracy, Devolution, and Confederation which embrace and uphold the sacrosanct values and principles of democracy, diversity, plurality, tolerance, equal access to opportunities and fair distribution of national resources so as to promote national integration and social cohesion. The nature, form, substance and structure of these national governance frameworks should be defined and determined by national contexts and circumstances.