Maritime Studies

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An assessment of port productivity at South African container port terminals.
(2015) Motau, Innocentia Itumeleng Greta.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
The increasing intermodal sophistication and globalisation of the international container shipping industry, as well as increased competition on container throughput between major ports, requires container terminals to continuously improve their efficiency in relation to productivity and performance. This dissertation seeks to examine and analyse productivity data over a period of time, in order to determine port productivity trends at three main container terminals in South Africa. Given the existing infrastructure and available resources at the container port terminals, the research further analyses the gaps between expected or targeted performance against actual productivity trends to date. It further tests current performance levels against international benchmarks and makes recommendation on productivity optimisation and best practice. This study is motivated by the rapid development and a dire need in container terminal port operations to provide efficient and effective services as well as high port productivity. In South Africa, port productivity is still seen as suboptimal in global terms and it is for this reason that South African container terminals continue to seek improvement in achieving quicker port turnaround times. The literature review highlights thoughts and opinions on previous research as far as the formula for efficient and effective port productivity is concerned. When measuring port productivity, a number of factors need strategic integrations and a balanced approach. These include ship turnaround times, port superstructure performance, stowage plans, labour dynamics, information flow between various stakeholders, yard management and cost of operations. This research identifies crane performance and ship work-rate performance as the major indicators of productivity at the respective terminals. In the South African port terminals context, these two indicators were lower than targeted for. This is due to a number of reasons including lack of the full utilization of the current crane regime, equipment downtime, poor coordination between the operator and shippers, inefficient landside operations as well as labour inefficiency. This study therefore recommends that the port terminal operator should put the current infrastructure into full utilization, adhere to maintenance schedules of all terminal equipment with improved training regimes within a more skilled labour force. There is a need to enhance landside capacity and layout. This research contends that this would contribute towards shorter port stays and improved vessel turnaround times.
Carbon emissions compliance and its impact on transport costs.
(2019) Gounder, Mary Mitchelle.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
The United Nations has increased its focus on environment issues that have been contributing to climate change. After the formation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1994, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) was tasked with emission reduction in ships. The Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC), which is a committee within the IMO, commenced with its focus on Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions at its 39th session. The MEPC commissioned studies on greenhouse gas emissions from ships. The MEPC also prepared the draft Annex VI which contained regulations for control of air pollution from ships. MARPOL Annex VI entered into force in 2005. The regulations provided specifications for the reduction of Sulphur emissions and Nitrogen emissions with deadlines for Emission Control Areas (ECAs) as well as globally. The ECA regulations for sulphur reduction have been in place since 1 January 2016.These regulations have put ship owners under immense pressure to comply. If there is non-compliance, the ship owners either receive a fine or their ships are detained. Considerable costs are involved in reducing sulphur emissions, as ship owners either build new ships or retrofit old ships with new exhaust cleaning systems or with modifications to their propulsion machinery. As this study will show the costs have not, so far, been passed on to the end user, as freight rates have not increased based on the compliance costs. The freight rates within the shipping industry are purely based on demand/supply factors. If costs are passed on to customers, then these additional costs are likely to impact on the spectrum of freight rates faced by transport users in both bulk and general cargo markets. This would be similar to the Carrier Security charge that shipping lines implemented after the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code came into force in 2004.
Development of the South African coastal shipping policy: the prospect of maritime cabotage.
(2020) Dlamini, Langa Hewitt.; Jones, Trevor Brian.; Wallis, Malcolm John David.
The Comprehensive Maritime Transport Policy (CMTP) provides the official policy position on maritime issues in South Africa since 2017. It covers a variety of maritime matters relating to shipping conduct on the coast and offshore and extends to the utilisation of landside resources. However, this work evaluates policy provisions pertaining only to coastal shipping and in particular to cabotage. Cabotage refers to the rights a coastal state reserves for itself to trade vessels of its choice between ports along its coast. The CMTP states cabotage as the official coastal shipping policy in South Africa for the first time in over a century-and-a-half of coastal shipping. However, the CMTP does not state the manner in which cabotage will apply. In fact, some of its ambitions seem impractical. Through a thorough historical account, the thesis sheds light on why cabotage has never been adopted in South Africa. It also gives the rationale for abandoning in 2017 the laissez-faire position that had existed over many decades. Given that cabotage presents itself in different forms, the thesis provides an overview of the various cabotage forms by reference to a sample of comparable jurisdictions. It then asks the question: what is the prospect of South African cabotage in light of the continental and international cabotage practice scope? The question directs focus to three issues: the meaning of cabotage; the scope of its application; and the comparative measure for its application. The analysis gleans the likely direction for cabotage implementation from the CMTP and other instruments despite anomalies that exist between what the CMTP sets out to achieve and the proposed legal framework for its implementation. The conclusion is that, given the dearth of shipping capacity in South Africa, coastal trade dependence on feeder cargo and imbalanced cargo trades, the country’s only proper option, when cabotage is adopted, is liberal cabotage. It should be implemented without comparing South Africa to other jurisdictions but must be founded on its own merits and that such should show a ready source of cargo.
Energy demand and associated planning failure for handling wet bulk cargoes in South African ports.
(2015) Ndebele, Bhekisipho Sibusiso.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
Energy demand has intensified the debate on the capability (or lack of capability) of the South African port infrastructure to handle increasing wet bulk cargo. Coupled with this debate are numerous questions about whether the port system can address the planning failure for wet bulk cargoes associated with such demand and supply. Energy demand consists of demand for gas, crude oil and electricity and other forms of energy, while wet bulk cargo is liquid cargo that is throughput via the port system. This research examines the relationship between increased energy demand and the port infrastructure to process, store and distribute such energy. It will also analyse the impact of liquid energy as strategic stock and how this affects port planning. The relationship between energy demand and port infrastructure is studied because it sheds some light on the debate that has been a subject of discussion for years between port planners and maritime economists. The research looks at both short-term and long-term demand for energy in order to understand this relationship. In analysing energy demand it is critical that strategies for energy and resource security are examined to reveal how these have changed the traditional role of ports from being mere receivers of goods to being active participants in global logistics supply chains. The supply chains which need to be reformed and planned and which need to change in line with economic needs are also examined (van Niekerk 2002). Additionally, there is a need to look at crude oil versus refined product and how any change in quantities of either crude oil or refined product brought through the port system would possibly influence the region’s seaborne trade. This will also necessitate an investigation of how such changes in quantum will affect the demand for port infrastructure. This study in essence looks at liquid energy as strategic stock and tries to understand how it influences port development. It is also critical to present a narrative of both the changes in energy demand in South Africa and their effect on the planning, development and configuration of ports. Based on the relationship between energy demand and port development, the research attempts to analyse the debate around the economics of port expansion, with particular reference to the current discourse on the expansion of the port of Durban. The research will show both sides of the argument about the criticality of this move as implied by several authors, including Graham Muller Associates (2009), Mather and Reddy (2008), Bracking (2013) and Maharaj, (2013). Since the research is on port economics, it is therefore imperative to discuss the applicable port tariffs affecting the energy supply chain because they have a bearing on the subject. There are various reasons why energy demand, the planning failure concerning wet bulk cargoes and the linkage between the South African maritime and energy development need to be researched. First, the maritime sector, which is pivotal to development and has been deeply fragmented and under-resourced, is restricting its potential to play its part as the primary component of South Africa’s global competitiveness. Second, the industry has not been competitive and has been underperforming. This will also help develop and implement an integrated maritime industry that will enhance South Africa’s competitiveness in the global economy. In addition, the research will help in positioning the maritime industry as a key enabler to energy development, thus placing the maritime industry as the “10ᵀᴴ province” which hosts many industries such as energy development (SAMIC, 2012). This also helps to capture earlier debates on the importance of the maritime sector to energy development and economic growth. The focus of the study is an analysis of current energy demand and the available infrastructure in South African ports for liquid bulk. The ports covered in the study are Durban, Ngqura, Saldanha Bay, Mossel Bay and Richards Bay. This entails understanding the planning strategy in place to meet any changes in quantities of liquid bulk cargo handled by these ports. Emphasis is placed on the relationship between refining capacities (or lack of refining capacities) and sea-borne commerce, in particular the relationship between fuel demand and berthing space demand for wet bulk cargoes. The study also poses fundamental questions including the following: - Will limited capacity and concerns about sufficient capacity growth affect port infrastructure planning and availability, in particular infrastructure for wet bulk? - Is there a need to build more refineries to address the problem of meeting fuel demand and what are the implications of such a move on the port infrastructure? - If there is a need to build more refineries, is there a need for more berths because berthing space is constrained? Together with looking at refining capacities and implications on port infrastructure, there is a need to look at alternatives for the storage of semi-/refined products. This introduces a discussion on locating landside links near port areas. A further question is whether port planners are considering all these requirements in the South African port planning strategy for the next 30 years. In particular, the study looks at whether growth in demand for refining capacities will change the port infrastructure and whether our ports are geared to handle such cargo that is, is the port configuration and demand strategy geared for such demand? The need to build new refining capacities is essential in South Africa but there is also a need for more berths for wet bulk cargoes. Fundamental questions here include, inter alia, how to maintain the balance between wet bulk infrastructure and other cargoes, since ports by their nature are supposed to service a variety of clients and whether an increase in energy demand will lead to an increased demand for larger carriers calling into our ports and whether our ports are inclined to handle such bigger vessels? In the event of increased demand for wet bulk cargo will such a surge in demand justify the required port infrastructure expenditure? All these questions indicate the need for an economic model to assist in exploring the increased liquid bulk demand/berth space relationship, as well as throwing light on who should control that space. Hence, studies such as this one are invaluable. South Africa’s liquid fuels are supplied by an association called SAPIA (South African Petroleum Industry Association) which comprises Sasol (owning two refineries in Sasolburg and Secunda), Engen (one refinery in Durban), BP and Shell (which co-own the SAPREF Refinery in Durban), Total (which co-owns the Sasolburg refinery with Sasol), Chevron (owning a refinery in Cape Town) and PetroSA, which owns a refinery in Mossel Bay. These refineries also carry stock that is used by Eskom. Literature consulted indicates that an increasing demand for energy, particularly oil and gas, necessitates that port infrastructure is planned accordingly. A basic research approach has been adopted to achieve this. The purpose of using a specific research methodology was to obtain information from a representative sample of individuals in the ports and energy sectors that would reflect the thinking on the different issues identified by the researcher. This approach employed an in-depth literature review process to gather theoretical data from energy demand policy/economics as well as port planning methodology and systems. The researcher initially used interviews (structured, semi-structured, telephonic and face-to-face) as a means of gathering data. These data were then verified against textual information. The research used two research methodologies, namely, quantitative and/or qualitative research. Quantitative research is based on meanings derived from the use of numbers and depicted by means of diagrams and statistical comparisons. Qualitative research is quite the opposite. It is based on meanings expressed through words. Such meanings may be categorised and analysed through the creation of a conceptual framework. The scope of qualitative research includes in-depth interviewing, which is usually conversational rather structured. Since the research is based on case studies, the use of the qualitative method is adopted. The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative data and questionnaires to extract the views of the respondents. These views are captured and analysed and recommendations are made concerning energy and port development.
Key performance indicators for container ports: a case of weighted efficiency gains from operations (WEGO) in South Africa.
(2022) Dlamuka, Mwezi Terrence.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
South Africa is a developing country, within which the volume of exports and imports plays a significant role in the local economy, and therefore ports are critical gateways to support international trade, which ensures uninterrupted movement of goods in the global supply chain. Transnet National Ports Authority (TNPA) in South Africa acts as the ports’ landlord. The institution is responsible for the funding and administration of local ports. Various authorities including businesses raise concerns about inefficiencies in South African ports. The dominant factors are poor performance and high tariffs. These factors have been explored by previous studies and benchmark studies that were conducted by Ports Regulator of South Africa (PRSA). Durban container port is characterised with poor performance particular for container handling and high tariffs for specific port users. The Ports Regulator of South Africa responded to this concern of high tariffs and poor performance by establishing a new element into tariff Methodology called Weighted Efficiency Gains from Operations (WEGO). This is a tool aimed to improve port operational performance, applying to all South African ports. This study aims to assess and explore Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) selected to determine WEGO. TNPA intends to link performance gains for operations to the tariff methodology (Required Revenue). TNPA published port operational performance for 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 financial periods. The ports’ operational performance data assisted PRSA to select performance indicators to be considered for efficiency gains and the Ports Regulator published the first WEGO performance results in 2018/2019 financial period. The study applied both quantitative and qualitative research methods to analyse WEGO performance results. This study relies on secondary data published by PRSA. The author only focused to containers and Durban as the main container port of the country. This data shows performance scores for each KPI selected and the aim is to observe changes to performance and seek understanding behind improved or declined operational performance. However, there will be no specific statistical or mathematical models utilised. In conclusion, this research also offered recommendations on what TNPA and TPT can do to improve their performance and efficiency in order to be on par with their global counterparts.
Opportunities for private sector involvement in the container market industry in the Port of Durban.
(2015) Patel, Shivani Ramesh.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
Transnet, the state-owned freight transport company, is responsible for rail transport, pipelines, port and marine services as well as many terminal operations within the port. The container terminal handling industry in South Africa is run predominantly by Transnet Port Terminals from Durban, Port Elizabeth, Ngqura and Cape Town. There are currently no private operators that handle containers in the scale handled by Transnet. The main object of this dissertation is to show by means of various case studies from both developed and developing economies that the involvement of the private sector results in increases in efficiencies and productivity. This has the net result of increasing the cost competitiveness of exports and reducing the landed cost of imports. As no new container terminals are being built in the short to medium term, this paper considers the financial feasibility of two different scenarios; one where a private bulk handling terminal in the Port of Durban is converted to a multi-purpose terminal handling containers, and the other where the same terminal is fully converted to a container handling terminal. The results indicate that due to the significant capital investment in running a container terminal, and the operational and land size restrictions, the full conversion to a container terminal would not be feasible. The lower capital investment and the flexibility of handling both bulk and containers makes the business case for the multi-purpose terminal more feasible.
Reviewing precautionary thresholds at seaport precincts on account of intense coastal weather conditions in KwaZulu-Natal.
(2021) Ngubo, Ntokozo.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
The prevalence of port damages as a result of severe weather occurrences along the coastal areas of KwaZulu-Natal has highlighted possible future impacts that climate change is likely to induce on the port setup. This then raises concerns in terms of the readiness of ports to take precautionary measures that would protect lives as well as the infrastructure. This study seeks to influence a review in the manner in which meteorological forecast and warnings issued to marine services are communicated and utilised among harbour authorities. The study also seeks to explore the potential of improving the enforcement of the existing port regulation and guidelines in order to improve safety in the advent of climate change. In order to identify the climate variables contributing directly to any severe weather driven incidence a proper analysis of weather patterns dominant during occurrence is an initial step. The study determines the relevant climate variables responsible for the two incidents at the two commercial ports of focus accordingly. The study relies heavily on reported account of events from various platforms however this limitation is supplemented through sourcing opinions from a range of experts relevant to the study during interviews. One of the incidents happened on 19 August 2013 when the MV Smart, a fully-laden Capesized dry-bulk carrier, ran aground while on exit from Richards Bay harbour. Another incident occurred on 10 October 2017 when five vessels that were berthed in various areas of the Durban port broke their moorings and were blown across the harbour by the very strong winds during the great storm. As an incident reconstruction exercise the study superimposes the peak levels reached by the climate variables with the magnitude of damages at the time of peak. The marine weather forecast & warnings issued twice daily for marine services predicts the possible extreme levels of climate variables, hence the study verifies the effectiveness of this forecast in informing precautionary measures. Port operations have available an enabling regulation in the form of the National Ports Act (12/2005) as well as the IMO guidelines as material to ensure precautionary measures are taken in advance to severe weather occurrences at the port. The research contends that proper utilisation and elevated enforcement of this available regulatory material has become even more vital in the advent of climate change phenomenon. The study recommends that in order to inform proper decision making inside the harbour, real time observed weather conditions and climate variables including the wind forcing be regularly updated. There is also a need for the Transnet National Ports Authority (TNPA) to conduct climate change vulnerability studies specifically relating to the harbours, preferably reviewable after a 5 to 10 years period.
Tidal vessels constrained in movement in the port of Durban: associated cargo costs and potential remedies.
(2021) Rosario, Ian.; Jones, Trevor Brian.
Large container callers into the port of Durban are not able to explore their inherent captive capacities, resulting in restricted cargo flow through the country aligned to the permissible draft, thus having an adverse impact on seaborne commerce and the wider economy of the country. It is therefore crucial for the berth deepening project to take its intended shape as deeper berths will facilitate the modern generation of large container vessels to be exploited to its full loadable capacity at the summer marks. This will enhance a secure and improved complementarity within the South African ports system, in respect of their roles as both gateway and trans-shipment hub ports for containers. The direct and indirect losses to Transnet and the shipping lines due to the methodical and phased erosion of trans-shipment volumes have been elucidated. The main contributory factors to the loss in trans-shipment volumes have been attributed to capacity constraints stemming out of draft limitations at Durban, as well as the vital component of port operations, namely, efficiency. In the interim, in order to mitigate the constraints, as a short-term remedy for partial recovery with regards to optimisation in cargo liftings, it has been proposed that Durban adopts the concept of operating as a NAABSA port, whereby working container vessels that are “Not Always Afloat But Safely Aground” may sustain continuous working operations while alongside at the port’s container berths, in place of the current stop-start operations. Both the vessels and the port are shown to possess all the essential credentials to safely execute this widely practised manoeuvre. To this effect, the structural integrity of the container ships has been established beyond any reservation, for the fitness of the NAABSA operation while working cargo, as has the plane and homogeneous nature of the seabed in the port of Durban. Regional competitor ports in the southern African region, in their drive to attract additional container volumes through their terminals, are creating capacity ahead of demand, to a point where they may be perceived as a threat to the dominance of the port of Durban. The status quo of these regional foreign ports gives an insight to the infrastructural developments and equipment status. This could perhaps instil a sense of circumspection for Transnet to forge ahead in the right direction.

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