Doctoral Degrees (Food Security)

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Access to irrigation and its impact on vulnerability to poverty and food security amongst South African farming households.
(2023) Adetoro, Adetoso Adebiyi.; Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon Cloapas.; Danso-Abbeam, Gideon.
The significance of participating in irrigation technology in eliminating vulnerability to poverty and improving farming households’ food security status cannot be overemphasized. Numerous studies have empirically examined the influence of farm management practices, including irrigation, on poverty reduction and overall household well-being. However, a notable gap exists in the literature concerning the specific impact of irrigation farming on vulnerability to poverty, multidimensional household poverty, and the welfare of rural farming households. This study aims to address this gap by exploring the nuanced relationship between irrigation participation and key welfare indicators within the context of rural communities. The study consists of four main objectives, each of which is an article and chapter of this thesis. In each of the articles, the significance, methods, data, findings and policy implications are detailed, and these are presented in the below sections. In the first objective, the study employed the documentary analysis approach and bibliometric technique to mine and analyse relevant documents for evaluating facts and evidence, which largely concurs with the method of information gathering used in the qualitative study method. In the analysis period (1991-2022), the most published articles on impacts of irrigation on household poverty appeared to be in 2022, indicating the growing concern on depleting food resource access. Overall, the findings revealed that irrigation adoption produced better yields and increased farm incomes thereby reducing rural household poverty as well as vulnerability to poverty. The study, therefore, suggests that more sophisticated and innovative methods, such as the proposed multi-level framework, conglomerate approach, and community-led solutions, should be developed and implemented to promote household food dynamics, food system resilience, and governance in the context of South Africa. The second segment of the research focuses on the effect of participation in irrigation farming on food security among rural farming households. The study employed an endogenous treatment effect with ordered outcome to achieve its objectives. The empirical findings indicate that the engagement of rural households in irrigation farming has a higher probability of mitigating food insecurity. This is attributed to the enhanced productivity and improved food accessibility that irrigation farming provides, particularly in the face of severe weather-induced shocks like drought. The findings also showed that the gender of the household head, the size of the household, unemployment status, access to market outlets, remittances and crop diversification (CDV) factors increase the likelihood of rural farmers’ involvement in irrigation farming, as well as reduces their food insecurity. Based on the findings, the study suggested that government intervention policies and a restructuring of rural operations to include more technological innovations such as advanced irrigation systems be reviewed. The third segment of the study focuses on the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to multidimensional poverty, which was carried out using the Alkire Foster multidimensional poverty index developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. The findings showed that the deprivation indicator ranges from 5% to 90%, where about 66% and 55% were deprived of food security (SDG2) and education (SDG4), respectively. The results of the probit analysis reveal that gender, remittances, crop diversification (CDV), education, seasonal farming and market outlets significantly influence the multidimensional poverty and vulnerability to multidimensional poverty of rural households in the study areas. The last part of the study examines the factors that influence farmers’ participation in irrigation farming, as well as how it affects farmers’ welfare (proxy by food consumption expenditure per capita) and household poverty (indicated by the poverty gap index, poverty severity and poverty vulnerability). The endogenous switching regression (ESR) model was employed to account for selection bias that could be caused by both observed and unobserved household factors, including observed and unobserved farm-level factors. The empirical results show that gender, household size, educational attainment, crop diversification and market outlets, among others, influenced farmers’ decisions to practise irrigation farming. Farmers engaging in irrigation farming have their food consumption per capita increased by 44%, while nonparticipants would have increased their consumption expenditure per capita by 23% if they had participated. Moreover, the participating farmers reduced their poverty gap index by 20% and poverty severity by 22%, whereas non-participating farmers could have reduced their poverty gap index and poverty severity by 5% and 17%, respectively had they engaged in irrigation farming. Participation in irrigation farming also reduced poverty vulnerability by 25%, while non-participants may have reduced poverty vulnerability by 3% had they participated. Overall, the study suggests that the household food dynamics and food system resilience and governance in the context of South Africa need to devote more time to reliable and innovative methods, such as the conglomerate approach, community-led solutions and appropriate strategies, which need to be implemented in order to mitigate the collapse of the nation’s food systems. In addition, the study recommend that enhancing farmers’ access to irrigation is crucial for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to eradicate poverty in all its manifestations everywhere. Lastly, the study suggests that improving policies related to improving education and increasing crop diversification among other factors, could contribute to reducing the multidimensional poverty and the households’ vulnerability to poverty.
An investigation of farmers level of participation in revitalized smallholder irrigation schemes in the KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa.
(2023) Rabothata, Matome Freddy.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Senzanje, Aidan.; Kolanisi, Unathi.
Agricultural irrigation development should be considered an essential cornerstone for food security, economic growth, and adaptation to climate change. Effective irrigation management contributes substantially to many Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Nevertheless, current irrigation schemes in Sub Saharan Africa perform below expectations, resulting in unreliable, inadequate, and inequitable access to irrigation water. Due to this, Sub-Saharan Africa is hindered from reaching its developmental goals in the irrigation sector. Various researchers identified five major limitations of African irrigation schemes, i.e., high capital costs, exaggerated and overestimated gains, a lack of understanding of the social reality, the absence of management skills and responsible human resources, and the neglect of operations and maintenance. Furthermore, most studies on African irrigation schemes also identified an overly centralised and bureaucratic management system as a major limitation. Thus, management transfer became a key strategy. Management transfer can be categorized differently according to the mode of implementation and phases, such as irrigation management transfer (IMT), participatory irrigation management (PIM), turnover or responsibility transfer. In South Africa, PIM/IMT policies were adopted and referred to as Revitalisation of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (RESIS), which aimed at rehabilitating irrigation infrastructure and providing farmers with access to input and output markets, training, financial support and assists with establishment of functional institutions within irrigation schemes. However, most countries, including South Africa, lack effective policy implementation strategies that encourage farmer participation to maintain irrigation schemes after government support is withdrawn. The main aim of the study was to investigate factors affecting farmers' level of participation during the decision-making, implementation, benefit sharing, and evaluation stages of PIM/IMT related programmes such as the RESIS in South Africa, and their effect on farmers' access to water for irrigation in selected revitalised smallholder irrigation scheme in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, South Africa. The study described demographic and socioeconomic factors of farmers in Makhathini, NdumoB, Tugela Ferry, and Mooi River irrigation schemes using descriptive statistics, an analysis of variance (ANOVA), and a Chi-square test. Multiple Linear and Probit Regression models were used to determine the effect of selected socioeconomic and demographic factors, RESIS knowledge, the RESIS programme and its implementers, and access to irrigation on farmers' level of participation and farmers' access to water in four revitalised smallholder irrigation schemes, respectively. Results indicated that the average age of farmers across four irrigation schemes is 54.38 years. Household heads own 4.66ha of land on average, but farmers in Makhathini and NdumoB have significantly larger plots than farmers in Mooi River and Tugela Ferry. Farmers in different irrigation schemes have statistically significant differences in education and marital status. Despite this, more than half of farmers were married. RESIS was known to more than half of the farmers in the four irrigation schemes. Furthermore, farmers expressed positive attitudes towards training and institutional arrangements, but were dissatisfied with their access to markets, financial support, and irrigation infrastructure. Farmers in Tugela Ferry were pleased with their irrigation infrastructure, but other irrigation schemes were not. Farmers in Makhathini were happier with market access than farmers in other irrigation schemes. Farmers were generally pleased with the participatory approaches, efficiency, effectiveness, and fairness of RESIS implementers. The overall Farmer Participation Index (FPI) in four irrigation schemes was around 50%, indicating that more farmers were not participating. Over 50% of farmers did not have adequate, timely, or equitable access to water across four irrigation schemes. With the exception of gender, all variables regressed against farmer participation were statistically significant. Age, education level, marital status, household and plot sizes, farmers' access to irrigation water, farmers' knowledge of RESIS and RESIS market access, financial support, institutional support, rehabilitated irrigation infrastructure and training, and RESIS implementers' fairness and participatory approach, efficiency, and effectiveness were found to have statistically significant effects on farmers' participation in various stages of the RESIS programme. Farmers' attitudes towards access to rehabilitated irrigation infrastructure, markets, financial support, training, the effectiveness of RESIS Implementers, and farmer participation during RESIS decision-making stages all had a statistically significant impact on their likelihood of accessing water for irrigation in four revitalised irrigation schemes. The implementation plans for the RESIS programme should not be viewed as one size fits all because demographic and socioeconomic factors may vary from irrigation scheme to irrigation scheme. Consequently, the study recommends determining a suitable project implementation plan for each scheme that will encourage farmers to participate throughout all phases of RESIS.
Can livelihood approaches adequately evaluate the determinants of food insecurity to inform interventions in Kenya?
(2012) Mutunga, Nancy Muthoni.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Ortmann, Gerald Friedel.
Food insecurity has remained pervasive for most Kenyan livelihoods despite the implementation of substantive interventions by the government and its development partners, since it gained independence in 1963. The inability to isolate distinct determinants of food insecurity for each livelihood group has led to interventions and solutions that have entrenched food insecurity rather than mitigate it. The key impediment to a livelihood-level analysis of food insecurity is the use of data and information collected at district-level administrative units, coupled with the absence of a robust analytical methodology. This study set out to identify determinants of food insecurity for three distinct livelihood groups in Kenya, namely the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural groups. The study also sought to empirically evaluate incremental impacts of identified determinants of food insecurity for each group. The outcomes were intended to inform the selection of particular indicators in order to target, monitor and identify important inter-relationships between variables for each livelihood group. Few studies have applied heterogeneous ordered logit regressions to livelihood-level data to evaluate food security determinants among livelihood groups and a comprehensive livelihood analysis of the determinants of food insecurity has not yet been undertaken in Kenya. Yet, Kenyan livelihoods are highly diverse, and livelihood characteristics transcend administrative boundaries. This study used a heterogeneous ordered logit to model determinants of food security in Kenya. The variables were: conflict, HIV/AIDS, rainfall, flooding, proximity to markets, migration patterns, food consumption sources, income contribution sources and own farm production. Results of significance tests and residual variability from the ordered logistic regression led to the identification of important determinants of food insecurity in each of the three livelihoods. The degree to which each of the variables was influential in accentuating food insecurity in each livelihood, was also evaluated. Determinants of food insecurity and their inter-relationships informed the selection of indicators for monitoring. Proximity to markets seemed to have a marked impact on food security in the pastoral, agropastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. Conflict was influential in determining food insecurity, particularly for the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. HIV/AIDS prevalence in the community was critical in determining food security status for the marginal agricultural and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Rainfall was an important determinant of food insecurity in all the groups. Flooding had no significant impact on food insecurity. The results showed that an increase in the number of food sources improved food security in the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. A diversity of income sources improved food security in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. The pastoral migration pattern seemed to have a substantial impact on food security especially in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Own farm production was also influential in determining food security in both groups. The study outcome provides a basis for identification of important monitoring indicators including agro-climatic, trade and market processes, migration dynamics, income and food sources and the stability, settlement patterns, key livelihood and coping strategies in the three livelihood groups. The strong inter-relationships between variables suggest that multiple variables need to be monitored concurrently to address livelihood food insecurity in Kenya. The findings suggest that livelihood approaches are central to identifying determinants of food insecurity in Kenya. The outcomes of the study provide a basis for informing interventions intended to reverse food insecurity in Kenya for each distinct livelihood group. Further research could include an analysis of the impacts of seasonality, an in-depth analysis of the markets and their marked influence in affecting food security, and applications of similar methodologies to evaluate of the food insecurity of livelihood groups that were not covered in this study. Outcomes of this work are expected to provide a basis for formulating livelihood-specific interventions in Kenya. The results will provide a platform for further interrogation of important determinants of livelihood food insecurity by governments, researchers, and development partners. Aspects of the methodologies applied in this study can be replicated in adjacent countries with food security and livelihood characteristics similar to Kenya, such as Ethiopia and Somalia.
Chiefdom development plan : implications for food security in Swaziland.
(2015) Mosisi, Moleka Pange.; Veldman, Frederick Johannes.; Siwela, Muthulisi.
The Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project (LUSIP) aims to reduce poverty and improve food security among rural households in Swaziland. Beneficiaries organise themselves into "agricultural cooperatives", each of which develops a unique Chiefdom Development Plan (CDP). The CDP process enables households to organise themselves into groups to access LUSIP and develop other focus areas for implementation. In addition to projects such as LUSIP, Swaziland has developed the National Food Security Policy to guide food security programmes in the country. This study set out to evaluate the CDP process to understand its successes and failures. The study evaluated the CDP against the four food security pillars that include food availability; food access; stability in equitable food provision; and food utilisation and nutritional requirements. The study explored four sub-objectives, namely:  The way in which the CDP has been implemented;  The extent to which the CDP met the process and outcomes criteria of land use planning;  Whether the CDP has the probability of sustainability and whether it can be aligned with development planning models used by the government of Swaziland;  Whether the CDP has been effective in achieving (i) the goals that have been set, including (ii) an improvement in food security. The study included a mixed method approach containing quantitative and qualitative data analyses, such as content, document, descriptive, and comparative analyses. In addition, the study included the analysis of the effectiveness of the CDP using the National Food Security Policy for Swaziland as framework for analysis for a comprehensive food security definition. Stratified random sampling was used to cover all the areas within the participating four Chiefdoms in the Lubombo Province. Accidental sampling was used to include a maximum of 260 households that had been involved in the CDP process. The study established that the CDP is a seven-stage process which is currently unique to Swaziland. The CDP is centered on the aspirations of the beneficiaries and it aims to identify resources, opportunities and challenges within the Chiefdom and transform them into a local strategy for sustainable management of land and water, to improve agriculture production and food security. The CDP had met all the process criteria. All the outcome criteria were met except that the households were not all positive (46.1%) on whether as a result of the planning land-use conflict had been reduced. Only few (23.8%) households understood that CDP is a framework but not a programme with a funding. The planning approach has been effective in fulfilling its primary goal of enabling household’s access to irrigated land and other water-related resources. Albeit some challenges in the planning process, this approach has a high probability of sustainability. The study concluded that even though effective, CDPs do not provide balanced support towards achieving all four food security pillars as some pillars are supported more than others. While food production may contribute towards availability and access of certain types of food, under-nutrition and risks such as drought continue to pose threats to productivity and stability of local agriculture and food systems. Therefore, the CDPs do not comprehensively meet food security objectives as per the National Food Security Policy for Swaziland. The study recommends that a review of the CDP process needs to be undertaken to ensure that all four food security pillars are included and that they reinforce one another. The CDP process needs to be cyclic rather than linear and include three explicit phases: objective setting, focus areas implementation; and monitoring and evaluation of the CDP outcomes and impacts. Beyond the need for better information sharing among policy makers and planners, government should adopt a national legislation requiring that community plans and implementation actions integrate key pillars of the National Food Security Policy for Swaziland to ensure the much needed comprehensive approach to improve food security in Swaziland.
Climate change and variability effects on inland fisheries: Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe.
Muringai, Rodney Tatenda.; Mafongoya, Paramu L.; Lottering, Romano Trent.
African inland freshwater fisheries support the livelihoods of more than 12,3 million people, and fish is the main or only source of animal protein for approximately 200 million people or 20% of the African population. Several studies indicate that fish productivity and catch in freshwater ecosystems in Africa are declining because of stressors such as overfishing, pollution, illegal fishing, bad management, and climate change. Several researchers concur that climate change is one of the most significant stressor threatening fisheries as it interacts with and amplifies existing stressors. Fish resources are climate-sensitive, therefore, changes in climatic conditions, particularly temperature and rainfall, alter the fish's chemical and physiological processes, consequently affecting the livelihoods and food security of fishery-dependent communities. Several empirical studies have been conducted to demonstrate the impacts of climate change and variability on fish production in African inland freshwater fisheries, including Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. However, there is a paucity of information on the impacts of climate change and variability on fishery-dependent communities on the shoreline of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe. To address the knowledge gap, this study investigated the effects of climate change on inland freshwater fisheries in two major fishing districts found along the shoreline of Lake Kariba namely Binga and Kariba/Nyaminyami Rural Districts in Zimbabwe. The study assessed the vulnerability of small-scale fishers and fishery resources to the effects of climate change and the fisher’s perceptions of climate change. In addition, the fisher’s adaptation strategies and the barriers and limits to adaptation were identified. Lastly, the study recommended strategies that can be adopted to build the resilience of freshwater fisheries to the probable effects of climate change. The study employed a mixed-method research approach to collect data. Primary data were collected from small-scale fishers and key informants using a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions, and secondary data of climate variables were obtained from the Meteorological Services Department of Zimbabwe. The data were subjected to different statistical analyses using IBM SPSS Statistics 27 and Microsoft Excel.Study findings indicate that small-scale fishers of Lake Kariba are aware of the climate change phenomenon. Most fishers indicated that the temperatures have increased (83.8%), rainfall decreased (73.6%) and the occurrence of extreme weather events such as droughts (56.9%) and floods (63.1%), has also increased in their respective areas. Fishers believe that the changing climatic conditions have adversely affected fish productivity and their fish catches, resulting in fishers employing several strategies to adapt to the changing environment and declining fish catches. These strategies include, but are not limited to, changing fishing gear, targeting new species, increasing fishing effort and days, adopting alternative livelihood strategies and migrating to a different fishing camp or village. A multinomial logistic regression model indicated that the fisher’s experience positively and significantly influenced the adoption of all adaptation strategies except livelihood diversification. The Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) shows that fishing communities in the Kariba district are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change than those in the Binga district, due to their lower adaptive capacity and marginalisation of fishing communities in the Kariba district. High dependency on climate-sensitive resources as the main livelihoods increased the sensitivity of the fishing communities to the impacts of climate change. Findings indicated that the fisher’s ability to adapt to a changing environment and declining fisher resources was hindered by several factors such as fishing regulations, a lack of access to basic services, and institutions, lack of technologies, ecological limits and natural limits. Therefore, to build or strengthen the resilience of the fisheries sector in Lake Kariba, fisheries managers, the government, agents of development, non-governmental organisations and the resource users should ensure effective lake co-management, increase fishers' access to early warning systems, ensure stakeholder participation in decision-making processes, education and raise awareness, provide aid and basic services, conduct fish stocks assessments and formulate pro-sustainable fisheries policies. This study contributed empirical evidence to current debates in the literature on the impacts of climate change on fishing communities, by enhancing an understanding of the characteristics and determinants of fishing communities’ vulnerability, adaptation strategy and limits and barriers to the adaptation of fishing communities to climate variability and change. The findings form the basis for further detailed research into the vulnerability and adaptation of small-scale fishing communities to climate variability and change. Collaborations between researchers, extension officers, development agencies, and fishers to formulate climate adaptation strategies to promote resilience in the fishery sector for sustainable fisheries for the future generation is encouraged. Keywords: vulnerability, adaptation, resilience, small-scale fisheries, Lake Kariba.
Determining the potential for smallholder organic production among three farming groups through the development of an empirical and participatory decision support tool.
(2008) Thamaga-Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Nsahlai, Ignatius Verla.; Copeland, Phillip.
Organic farming is increasingly viewed as a plausible production system for sustainable agriculture for smallholder farmers. However, there is not enough scientific evidence and knowledge to advocate certified organic farming for African smallholder farmers who face several constraints related to production, storage and marketing. The potential for organic farming for smallholder farmers, faced by these constraints, is not clearly defined. As a result, this study set out to evaluate the production potential of organic agriculture among three smallholder farmer groups. Production questions were used to investigate and evaluate the potential for organic agriculture among three smallholder farmer groups and constituted the following subproblems: · What crops can be grown in the three study areas, based on climatic data ? · Do farmers concur that these are the most suitable potential organic crops? · How useful do the farmers find the decision making tool? · What constraints threaten commercial production of the identified crops for these farmers? Participatory methodologies that included the use of Force Field Analysis, discussions and workshops were used to identify organic production constraints related to production decisions. Farmers faced constraints related to finance, capacity enhancement, technical knowledge, fencing, irrigation, and a lack of, or inappropriately trained extension officers. As a response to identified production constraints, a decision support tool was developed. Natural resource data, including climatic and agronomic data, was used to create a specially calibrated Microsoft Excel spreadsheet interface that functions as an empirical organic production decision support tool for organic and aspirant organic smallholder farmers, by providing answers for farmer-prioritised production constraints. A list of potential crops for each of the three study areas was subjected to a series of checks against suitability for climate and disease conditions and nutrient requirements. A limited supply of manure, to meet the enormously high requirements for organic production in the poor soils of these areas, is the major constraint to exclusive organic production and renders certified organic production difficult and unsustainable. Farmers disagreed with some of the crops on the list, arguing that familiar crops were rejected by the model, but they were excited by the prospects for production of “new” crops suggested as suitable by the decision support tool, but not yet grown in the study areas. End users welcomed the model and expressed the opinion that it would be useful in decision making related to organic crop production. The study concludes that, although a number of agronomically-suitable crops can grow in the study areas, organic production is restricted by rather high manure requirements, lack of compost making skills, lack of knowledge on natural pest and disease control and poorly nourished soils, leading to poor yields. The rainy season creates a disease-supporting environment, rendering organic farming risky for rain-fed smallholder farming. Risk in certified organic farming for smallholders was further exacerbated by a hardly inconducive policy environment that low literacy levels exist amongst farmers. This study is innovative for three reasons. First, farmers were true participants and drivers of the research. Second, trans-disciplinary expert seminars were attended by experts from different disciplines who critiqued the conceptualisation, design, and implementation of the study. Third, the development of a practical decision-support tool shows innovation towards solving complex smallholder farmers decisions. If organic farming is to be promoted, commitment by government is needed in order to establish policy and legislation on organic farming to direct and govern training, information provision and marketing. Intensive training and knowledge building of organic production for smallholder farmers and extension officers is critical. There are also agroecological risks associated with organic farming for smallholder farmers. Recommendations for future research include comparison between organic agriculture and conventional agriculture, where sustainability of certified organic farming and economic viability can be conducted in the South African context. Improvement of the decision making tool will require involving information technology specialists so that the tool can be installed in community centres, extension offices and other accessible places for farmers and others.
Development of a framework for managing food security programme : an analysis of student food insecurity and the interventions at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
(2018) Sabi, Stella Chewe.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Siwela, Muthulisi.; Naidoo, Krishna Denver.
Food insecurity is a critical challenge affecting many households in post-apartheid South Africa. The 2017 report by Statistics South Africa indicated that food poverty had increased by 2,8 million in headcount, from 11 million in 2011 to 13,8 million in 2015. The most vulnerable were low-income households. The literature indicates that, in response to high levels of food and nutrition insecurity among poor population groups that have persisted from the apartheid era, the post-Apartheid South African government has made great strides in addressing the problem. For example, the serious problem of food and nutrition insecurity among children of school-age is being addressed through the National School Nutritional Programme, which has resulted in the enhancement of the capacity of the children to learn actively and the reduction of learner absenteeism and dropping out of school. On the other hand, recent literature indicates that food insecurity is an emerging and alarming problem among students at Institutions of Higher Learning (IHLs) in South Africa. The problem affects particularly students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) is likely to be no exception to experiencing student food insecurity, given that nearly 50% of the students are from low-income households. The literature suggests that food insecurity and its impact on the health, well-being and academic performance is often underestimated in South African IHLs. This under-estimation seems to have resulted in the absence of a distinct government programme focussed on addressing food and nutrition insecurity among students at South African IHLs. In the current study, a preliminary review of the recent literature indicated that, due to failure or neglect by the government to address the problem and challenges of food and nutrition insecurity among students at South African IHLs, institutions like UKZN have resorted to developing and implementing a food security project and/or programme. The literature shows that UKZN has been running a Food Security Programme (FSP) since 2012 to address the problem of food and nutrition insecurity among the students. The form of assistance provided by the UKZN FSP includes meal vouchers and food hampers to students in need. Despite the implementation of the FSP at UKZN since 2012 as described above, pertinent data and information on student food security status are not available. While few studies have been conducted to analyse the food security status of students at South African IHLs (including UKZN), the studies were of limited in scope and in particular, the studies conducted at UKZN were not university-wide and therefore generated very limited data and information. In addition, it seems that no studies have been conducted to analyse: the perceptions of UKZN key stakeholders regarding student food insecurity; the awareness level of the key stakeholders (including students), regarding the existence of the FSP at their institution; and in examining the management of the FSP. The data and information that is lacking are essential, as they would guide decision-making with respect to policies and strategies aimed at developing and/or enhancing sustainable programmes and projects that address food insecurity among students at IHLs in South Africa. Thus, the objectives of this study were to: assess the prevalence of food insecurity among students; analyse the perceptions of UKZN key stakeholders (including students) regarding student food insecurity; assess the awareness level of the key stakeholders regarding the existence of the FSP at the institution; analyse the management of the FSP; and make recommendations, if necessary, for the improvement of programme management to achieve its objectives and impact on student academic potential. The study was conducted at UKZN’s five campuses, which are located in Durban, Pietermaritzburg and Pinetown in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. This empirical study used a mixed methods approach that lies in both the qualitative and quantitative paradigms. Quantitative data were collected through survey questionnaires that were delivered to the participants (N=500 students; N=100 academic staff). Qualitative data were collected through key informant face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions with various key stakeholders at UKZN. Data obtained from the surveys were analysed by IBM SPSS version 24 software, while most of the qualitative data were subjected to thematic content analysis. Results from the surveys suggest that food insecurity remains a serious challenge among university students. Some 53% of the students were vulnerable to the phenomenon, of whom 9% were highly vulnerable. The highest prevalence of food insecurity was in students relying on a financial aid scheme, undergraduates and males. It appears that students who suffer food insecurity will additionally experience psychological and emotional stress as a factor that can negatively affect their health, motivation and academic potential; some 67% of the students reported that hunger reduced their concentration and vigour such that, 28% of them had missed classes. Social stigma was linked to food insecurity as students preferred anonymity about their food insecurity status. Despite that the FSP had been implemented four years earlier, an overwhelming majority of the UKZN stakeholders among them 90% of the targeted beneficiaries, expressed ignorance regarding the existence of the programme at UKZN. In addition, 37% of the students showed reluctance to utilising or recommending the FSP to anyone. To evaluate the FSP at UKZN, a qualitative research using an explorative research design, generated data from key informants using face-to-face interviews. The study findings showed that as an institution, the UKZN lacked a sustainable blueprint for addressing the increasing prevalence of FI among students. The FSP currently run at UKZN was not formalised but introduced as a self-help initiative linked to a social responsibility of the University. ‘Ignorance’, and ‘denialism’ were the main identified descriptors for the lack of the programme prioritisation and mainstreaming, resulting in lack of resources including sustainable funding, personnel, and infrastructure. As perceived from the student views, social stigma was associated with negative attitude and beliefs about food aid. The study recommends that the FSP could overcome such negative connotations through programme awareness among the UKZN stakeholders. Further, managing of the FSP was compromised by lack of a monitoring and evaluation system in place, resulting in lack of publicity of the programme to the wider UKZN community. The study concludes by developing a framework as a toolkit for managing a FSP at an IHL like UKZN.
Do African country investment plans mitigate high food prices through improved household risk management? : a five-country comparative analysis.
(2012) Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon C.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Ortmann, Gerald Friedel.
Staple food prices rose sharply in 2007/2008, dropped slightly after July 2008, and rose again in 2010/2011. Since 2008, food prices have remained high, indicating a structural upward adjustment in food prices amidst excessive price volatility. The 2008 food price increases led to considerable media coverage and alarm among governments who implemented a variety of responses to protect their populations from food insecurity. At the start of the high food price crisis in May 2008, the African Union and New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AU/NEPAD) invited 16 African countries to a workshop in South Africa. The aim of the workshop was to assist selected African countries identify and formulate appropriate plans to mitigate food insecurity and manage rising food prices. This study set out to investigate whether the strategies implemented by national governments at the start of the crisis mitigated high food prices through improved risk management strategies in five African countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda and Uganda) and evaluated these strategies to see if they were included in the national agriculture and food security investment plans. To achieve this, the study set out to explore four sub-problems, namely: What was the impact of high food prices on populations in the five selected countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda and Uganda)? How did the five countries respond to the 2008 food price crisis with regard to providing for immediate needs and protecting vulnerable groups from food insecurity? How many early actions were included in country compacts and agriculture and food investment programmes? Do country investment plans include household risk management programmes that will protect vulnerable groups against high food prices in future? The involvement of the researcher in the AU/NEPAD workshop and his subsequent engagement with national government representatives provided a unique opportunity to analyse the iterative process of Country Investment Plan (CIP) development. This innovative and largely qualitative study integrated comparative, content and thematic analysis approaches, using the four elements of the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme’s (CAADP) Framework for African Food Security (FAFS) to analyse the national plans. The study drew on available data from a wide variety of national, regional and international documents. Additional data were collected through a survey questionnaire completed by CAADP country focal persons. Data sourced from documents included Food Price Indices, country policy responses to high food prices, poverty and malnutrition indicators and the types of risk management strategies designed under CAADP. The study found that food prices increased across all five countries between 2007 and 2008, although the effects of the increases varied, being influenced by, among other factors, the proportion of national stocks purchased on the international market (i.e. net importers of staple crops), the availability of substitute staples on the domestic market and the magnitude of the difference between international and domestic market prices. The 2008 food price increases forced populations to spend a higher proportion of their income on food and eroded their purchasing power, impacting on the food security of these populations. Poor people adopted eroding consumption strategies that increased food insecurity. The impact of the high food prices on populations was determined by whether they were net food buyers or producers, the mix of staple commodities in their food basket and the proportion of income spent on food. As poor net food importing countries, imported staple foods became too costly, except in Uganda - a net exporter of food staples consumed in the surrounding countries. High food prices also provoked social unrest in Ethiopia and exacerbated political and economic instability in Kenya. Countries’ early responses to the food price crisis were varied and included responses that can be classified into three main categories, namely: Trade-oriented responses protected domestic stocks, reduced tariffs, restricted exports to reduce prices for consumers or increased domestic supply Consumer-oriented responses provided direct support to consumers and vulnerable groups in the form of, among others, food subsidies, social safety nets, tax reductions and price controls Producer-oriented responses provided incentives for farmers to increase production - using measures such as input subsidies and producer price support. Most responses were aimed at managing prices, suggesting that governments tried to protect citizens from price increases and buffer consumption reduction. Safety net programmes mitigated risks through the provision of food for immediate consumption. As a result, malnutrition levels unexpectedly decreased or remained static in these five countries, despite expectations and media claims that the number of hungry people would increase significantly. The early actions from the food price workshop plans were generally systematically translated into long-term programmes in the Compacts and Country Investment Plans. In Ethiopia, seven of eight early action plans were translated into the CIP, Kenya included three of eight, Malawi’s CIP included four of ten, and Rwanda included six of its ten early actions in their CIP programme, while Uganda included only six of thirteen early actions in their CIP. The study found that CIPs included risk management strategies, but these focused predominantly on improving early warning systems and crisis prevention. The risk management options largely included options for improving crisis prevention, followed by improving emergency responses and strengthening risk management policies and institutions. Only Kenya’s CIP included more risk management options for improving emergency responses – four of six risk management programmes. Despite expectations that programmes developed under CAADP FAFS would include all FAFS elements, CIPs lacked programmes to improve dietary quality. Only Rwanda’s CIP included nutrition programmes - three of six programmes in their CIP. The study concluded that while the proposed risk management strategies could mitigate risks associated with high food prices and offer some buffer for populations from food insecurity, the programmes are not comprehensive. The plans were generally weak regarding improving dietary quality through diversification of food consumption and production. Although the CIPs included risk management strategies, these strategies would not address risks in a comprehensive manner. More effective and coherent actions are still required to help the most food insecure populations cope with increasing high food prices and future price shocks; help developing country farmers respond to the opportunities offered by the rising demand for their products; and bring more stability in prices. The early food price response workshop seems to have influenced the development of programmes in the CAADP compact and CIPs, despite the fact that the workshop did not intend to assist countries with the development of comprehensive national investment plans. The large funding gaps in the CIPs constrain implementation of essential mitigation and development strategies and could leave countries vulnerable to the negative impacts of higher prices for consumers and threaten future household food security. The study recommends that countries invest in agriculture-led growth to boost domestic production and strengthen institutional capacities regarding national food stock reserves to reduce their dependency on imports and ensure food insecurity. National monitoring and evaluation systems need to be strengthened to evaluate and monitor the implementation of CIPs and to warn about future high food prices. Empirical estimation of the impact of price increases on households across all CAADP countries is needed to understand and monitor the impact of price changes and interventions.
Does nutrition transition distort food choices and dietary patterns contributing to obesity among black African women? : a case of African women from Pietermaritzburg.
(2018) Dandala, Ntombizodwa Phumzile.; Green, Jannette Maryann.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Van Onselen, Annette.
Obesity and its attendant nutrition-related non-communicable diseases and other risk factors has long been identified as a serious public health concern globally and locally. Based on those concerns, the author investigated the question: „Does nutrition transition distort food choices and dietary patterns, contributing to the overweight and obesity problem among the Black African women?‟ The nutrition transition is characterised by shifts from traditional diets to highly processed products with long shelf-life and regarded as energy-dense as they tend to have high oil, sugar and salt content, often purchased from supermarkets. Such diets are highly implicated in the global obesity epidemic. The focus was on women from Pietermaritzburg and the surrounding urban and rural communities. Qualitative and quantitative research methods using various research instruments were employed in the survey-based research design to elicit information from the participants. Qualitative methods used were in-depth and focus group interviews. Raw data were collected, computed and analysed. Four hundred and fifty-two women, excluding the pilot study, were interviewed. The participants were between the ages of eighteen and sixty-five years. Research included data from seventy-three women organised into six focus groups, complemented with key informants‟ interviews. The anthropometric data represented by the body mass index, reflected significantly high prevalence of obesity. The waist-to-hip ratios and the waist circumference, both indicators of abdominal obesity, similarly concurred. The socio-demographic information described the sample as homogenous in that they were all of childbearing age and more, oversaw food preparation in their households, of the same race group, culturally and geographically from the rural and urban areas of Pietermaritzburg. The socio-demographics analysed, were: marital status through the female-headed households‟ implied poverty; social grants‟ recipients as suggestive of household poverty; ownership of consumer durables as signifying a community undergoing a nutrition transition. ii The Household Food Insecurity (Access) Scale (HFIAS) measured the access component of food insecurity based on the experience of anxiety about food shortage; the perceptions of insufficient quality and variety of food and insufficient food intake. That was done through a nine occurrence- and frequency-of-occurrence questionnaire. The findings showed incidents of worrying about not having enough, as well as eating a limited variety and foods they really did not want to eat because of insufficient funds. Significantly, there were incidents of not eating any food of any kind because of lack of funds, including experiences of going to bed hungry, as well as going day and night without eating anything because there was not enough food. Those poignantly indicated a possibility of food insecurity at household level. The Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) is a food group dietary diversity indicator assessed through varieties of food-groups consumed. The results revealed limited dietary diversity with monotonous starchy staples consumed and high consumption of oily, sweet and salty food groups implicated in nutrition transition and the obesity epidemic. Focus Groups and key informants seemed oblivious to obesity and venerated it. Overall, the participants seemed to be relatively food and nutrition insecure, concurrently undergoing a nutrition transition, with abundance of highly processed products that seemingly distorted food choices and dietary patterns.
Does sequential harvesting affect the quality of and income from organically grown potatoes?
(2009) Katundu, Mangani George Chilala.; Siwela, Muthulisi.; Bower, John Patrick.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Lack of effective storage facilities to mitigate post harvest losses threatens the profitability of organic farming. In rural KwaZulu-Natal, small scale farmers use traditional storage and sequential harvesting to keep potatoes post maturity while waiting to sell. The effect of these practices on potato quality has not been studied and documented. This study set out to investigate if traditional practices (sequential harvesting and traditional farmer’s store) of the Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation in Umbumbulu affect the quality and marketable quantity of organically grown potatoes. Specifically the study set to investigate the effect of traditional farmer’s store, in situ and controlled storage on the carbohydrate content and sensory quality of potatoes organically grown in Embo by EFO farmers; determine consumer quality expectations of organically and conventionally grown potatoes; investigate the effect of sequential harvesting on the potato quality expectations of consumers and to investigate the produce and income losses experienced by small scale organic farmers at harvest and during storage. Experiments were conducted to compare the effect of sequential harvesting, farmer’s store and controlled cold storage (7oC and 90% relative humidity) on the sensory, appearance and keeping quality of organically grown potatoes. A survey of 100 consumers (40 organic and 60 conventional consumers) was conducted to ascertain consumer appearance and keeping quality expectations of potatoes. In addition, a survey of 101 farmers investigated the storage practices of the EFO farmers who grew potatoes and the type of losses incurred in storage. Preference ranking was used to investigate if time of harvesting post maturity affected potato quality. Produce losses experienced by the farmers were quantified. A co-research group of three seasoned farmers of the EFO participated in the research. They produced potatoes used in the study and provided valuable input to ensure that the study adhered to storage practices of the farmers. The lowest and highest sugar levels were observed in potatoes stored in situ and under controlled conditions, respectively. Potatoes left in situ also recorded higher starch content. Potatoes stored in situ were significantly preferred by sensory panellists (p<0.05) over those stored in both farmer’s store and in controlled storage. Preference rank scores were negatively correlated to total sugar content and positively correlated to starch content. Consumers in the study highlighted five desirable appearance qualities in potatoes: absence of greening, absence of sprouting, smooth skin texture, absence of blemishes and light skin colour. No significant differences in the quality expectations between participating organic and conventional potato consumers were found. The majority of consumers expected potatoes to store for at least three weeks post purchase. Sequentially harvested potatoes met this expectation when potatoes were left in situ for a maximum of six weeks post maturity. Potatoes in situ also maintained good appearance and sensory quality. The highest produce losses were experienced in summer owing to soft rot problems. Production in the drier seasons (autumn and winter) increased the proportions of potatoes too small to be sold as table potatoes. With the exception of completely rotten potatoes, poor quality potatoes were consumed, used as seed potatoes and sold to the local market as seed and for food. Poor potato quality resulted in reduced income for the farmers. This investigation pioneered research into the effect of sequential harvesting on the quality of organically grown potatoes. The findings demonstrate that sequential harvesting provides resource-poor small scale organic farmers with an efficient storage option where other storage methods and technologies may be inappropriate, ineffective or unaffordable. It is recommended that government and other players in the agricultural sector plan initiatives to educate small scale potato farmers on the benefits of sequential harvesting as an effective short term method of potato storage. Research with other potato cultivars in different agro-ecological settings is needed to optimise sequential harvesting. Government policy aimed at training and developing farmer capacity in organic seed potatoes production is essential to ensure that farmers access disease and pest free seed. Farmers also need assistance to access to irrigation resources to improve production.
Exploring agricultural knowledge systems and smallholder farmers empowerment: implication on household food security.
(2020) Tamako, Nthabeleng.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
The association between the various actors of knowledge and the generation of common knowledge is expanding in agricultural sector. Smallholder farmers engages in multiple informative networks both formal and informal knowledge systems. These heterogeneous networks expose farmers to diverse agricultural knowledge. To assess their effect on the empowerment and food security of farmers, it is important to categorise the information and knowledge structures that are accessible to farmers. Firstly, the agricultural knowledge systems and the types of knowledge that occur in smallholder farmers. Secondly, by identifying the opinion leaders’ social networks and their influence on the quality of agricultural knowledge. Thirdly, by assessing the agricultural knowledge systems in relation to farmers’ empowerment levels and food security. The study was guided by the sustainable livelihood framework (SLF) and knowledge systems. The SLF identifies five capitals that can be classified as tangible and intangible and referred to as capabilities. The study argues that while building the smallholder farmers’ asset base through existing systems, it is important to categorise active knowledge systems, identify opinion actors within these networks and measure the level of empowerment brought about through these systems. A purposive sampling method was employed to collect data from 219 smallholder farmers. A descriptive analysis was used, a Chi-square test and running ordered probit and multinomial models. The study indicated that knowledge systems at Bergville and Appelsbosch emerge from the bottom level to outside sectors. The participation level of farmers in local technical and scientific knowledge systems showed a positive statistically significant with regard to farmers’ food security. The study further indicated that opinion leaders are from formal and informal systems and are currently working for local government and other farmers organisations and have years of farming experience. Not only do they have frequent contact with the farmers, but they also have other communicating channels they use for technical skills with farmers. The results revealed that farmers require leaders who can quickly access reliable and relevant information pertinent to their agricultural problems. These opinion leaders require continuous assessment to enhance and integrate their leadership skills and promote empowerment programmes for farmers. These facts explained why many of the farmers chose to seek information and advice from their opinion leaders. These research findings may help agents to develop their understanding of the dynamics of local communities and the social complexity that shapes farmers’ environment and decisions. The results also revealed that although the smallholder farmers were moderately and highly competent in areas of self-efficacy, sense of control, agricultural knowledge and food security, the majority of them had only low or moderate leadership skills. However, the significant number of severely food insecure farmers who regard themselves as having moderate or high self-efficacy still need to be improved. This implies that there is still work and improvement needed to reduce the number of food insecure farmers. While most programmes implemented by the Department of Agriculture and the private sector include the tangible empowerment of small-holder farmers, programmes should also focus on their psychological empowerment. As indicated by the results of this study, there is an association between knowledge systems, empowerment levels and farmers’ food security status and the effectiveness of agricultural knowledge systems could, therefore, be augmented by improving farmers’ psychological empowerment to enhance resilient agriculture and food production.
Exploring the youth-agriculture nexus: implications on household food security and livelihoods.
(2023) Mukwedeya, Bright Takudzwa.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
The youth-agriculture nexus in Africa is critical to food and nutrition security, employment and livelihoods at multiple scales through multiple pathways. The Zimbabwean government, like several other African governments enacted policies and interventions to harness this opportunity. Despite the government's efforts, getting youth attracted or interested in agriculture has been a challenge while success has been elusive. The information gaps characterising most of Africa's policy environment are contributing to the failure of most youth policies and interventions. Robust and compelling evidence on the intersection of youth and agriculture is lacking. It is against this background that the study explores the youth-agriculture nexus and its implications on household food security and livelihoods. The study's specific objectives include determining the factors affecting rural youth participation in agriculture; examining the factors influencing migration willingness and choice of destination; determining the factors affecting life satisfaction and lastly; examining the factors influencing livelihood choice and food security among youth. The study examines the youth-agriculture intersection from various disciplines, considering noncognitive, demographic, social and economic factors. This is because of the complex and multi-dimensional nature of the youth-agriculture nexus. A pre-tested structured questionnaire collected data from 200 youths across three districts of Mashonaland East Province in Zimbabwe. Various econometric techniques of discrete choice and descriptive statistics analysed the data. The rights to anonymity, informed consent, and confidentiality were upheld to make the study ethical. The descriptive statistics show that most of the youth were males, household heads, unemployed, married, looking for a job and have a secondary level of education. Also, the results show that most of the youth in the study were food insecure, dissatisfied with their lives and willing to engage in migration. The study sheds light on the importance of noncognitive factors (expectancy and subjective task value) in understanding the youth-agriculture nexus. The results reveal that expectancy, utility and intrinsic value and cost statistically significantly influences youth career decisions and life outcomes. It follows that youth with expectancy, intrinsic or utility value engage and spent more hours in agriculture. Further, youth with utility or intrinsic value have high life satisfaction compared to their counterparts without utility or intrinsic value. The study also reveals that traditional factors such as age, marital status, level of education, access to land, household size and employment status statistically significantly influence youth career decisions and life outcomes. The study concludes that both noncognitive and traditional factors are critical in understanding youth career decisions and life outcomes and combined can provide a holistic and better understanding of the youth-agriculture nexus. In line with the literature, the future of agriculture and food security in rural Zimbabwe is uncertain. The results reveal that most of the youth are leaving or losing interest in agriculture. In the study, over 70 percent of the youth expressed low interest in engaging in the sector in the coming years. Second, a relatively high number of youths were willing to migrate. The results show that 69 percent of the youth in the study were willing to engage in migration. Last, low life satisfaction was a general characteristic among the youth. Over 60 percent of the youth in the study expressed dissatisfaction with their lives. Further, the study reveals a shift in some youth narratives in agriculture. First, a significant number of youths in the study opted for non-agricultural livelihoods over agriculture. Second, international migration has accelerated in rural Zimbabwe. Thus, rural migration is no longer limited to internal migration as many youths opted to engage in international migration. With a shift in youth narratives and uncertainty in agriculture and food insecurity in rural Zimbabwe, the study recommends the integration of noncognitive factors in policy decisions. Further, the study suggests the adoption of an interdisciplinary approach to the design of youth policies and interventions in agriculture. Also, the study recommends the need to set up multi-stakeholder platforms in policy decisions, planning and investment. Last, policy priority should focus on closing the large disparities between urban and rural Zimbabwe in terms of social services such as education, credit and communication.
The extent of Aflatoxin and Aspergillus section Flavi, Penicillium spp. and Rhizopus spp. contamination of peanuts from households in western Kenya and the causative factors of contamination.
(2010) Mutegi, Charity Kawira.; Ngugi, Henry.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Peanuts contribute significantly to food security in western Kenya due to their high nutritional value and cash crop potential. However, the crop is highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. Yet little information is available on the extent of contamination in the region. This study explores the level and extent of contamination of peanuts by aflatoxins, Aspergillus section Flavi, Rhizopus and Penicillium spp. in western Kenya. A survey of 769 households was carried out in the Busia and Homa bay districts of Kenya. Information on peanut pre- and post-harvest practices was collected through person-to-person interviews. Aflatoxin levels of samples collected from each household were determined by indirect competitive ELISA method. Isolation of Aspergillus section Flavi, Penicillium and Rhizopus spp. was done on Modified Dichloran Rose Bengal (MDRB) agar, while identification of specific fungal species was done on Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA). Screening isolates of A. flavus and A. parasiticus for aflatoxin production was done in high sucrose yeast extract (YES) liquid medium, and the aflatoxin types identified on TLC plates, using analytical grades of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 as reference standards. Common household preparation techniques (roasting, making peanut paste and boiling peanuts) were evaluated for effectiveness in reducing aflatoxin levels in peanuts. The boiling procedure was modified to test the effect of magadi (locally available salt used mainly to soften legumes, vegetables or maize while cooking), ammonium persulphate and sodium hypochlorite during soaking. Magadi, sodium bicarbonate and locally prepared ash was subsequently used to boil the nuts after soaking. Aflatoxin levels ranged from zero to 7525 ìg/kg. Most samples were safe to consume, based on the European Union and Kenya Bureau of Standards tolerance levels, with 63.7 per cent of all samples having undetectable levels, and only 7.54 per cent being contaminated based on KEBS standards. Peanuts from the Busia district, which has more of Lower Midland 1 (mean annual rainfall of 1600-1800 mm) and Lower Midland 2 (mean annual rainfall of 1300-1700 mm) agro-ecological zones had significantly (÷2=14.172; P=0.0002) higher levels of aflatoxin compared to the Homa bay district, that has more of the drier Lower Midland 3 agroecological zone (mean annual rainfall of 900-1500mm). Improved cultivars had significantly (÷2=9.748; P=0.0018) lower levels of aflatoxin compared to local cultivars. Over 60 per cent of all samples had A. flavus S-strain, A. flavus L-strain and A. niger. A. flavus S-strain was positively correlated with aflatoxin levels. As expected, grading of peanuts post-harvest significantly reduced the incidence of A. flavus S- and L-strains, while peanuts collected from farmers who belonged to producer marketing groups had a significantly lower incidence of A. flavus S- and L-strains, A. niger and Rhizopus spp. The incidence of A. flavus L-strain, A. niger and Rhizopus spp. was significantly higher in local landraces compared to the improved cultivars. Over 60 per cent of isolates produced Aflatoxin B1. Intermediate processes such as sorting and dehusking led to a significant decline in levels of aflatoxin. Soaking peanuts in water, magadi, NaOCl and ammonium persulphate significantly reduced aflatoxin levels by 27.7, 18.4, 18.3 and 1.6 per cent respectively; while boiling the peanuts in magadi, local ash, baking powder and water reduced aflatoxin levels by 43.8, 41.8, 28.9 and 11.7 per cent respectively. Using magadi during boiling increased the acceptability of the boiled peanuts while reducing the aflatoxin levels. The impact of aflatoxin levels in peanuts studied in this research is within safe limits except a few samples, and therefore aflatoxin contamination of peanuts at household level is not a serious threat. Contamination by aflatoxin and post-harvest fungi can be reduced by focusing on improved control strategies for wetter and more humid zones such as planting improved peanut cultivars and controlling pre-harvest pest damage. Conventional household peanut preparation techniques should be explored as possible aflatoxin management strategies in Kenya. The aflatoxin binding properties of locally available salts such as magadi and locally prepared ash should be further investigated.
Gender adaptive capacity to climate variability and change in pastoral communities : case study of Turkana in North-western Kenya.
(2017) Omolo, Nancy Akinyi.; Mafongoya, Paramu L.
Recurrent droughts due to climate change have led to the vulnerability of the pastoralist communities, leading to loss of assets and food insecurity. Climate change will have different impacts on women and men’s livelihoods. This specific study examined the relationships between gender and adaptive capacity to climate variability among pastoral communities in Turkana in north-western Kenya. This study used triangulation method which includes: the quantitative household survey data, focus group discussions (FGDs), a literature review of secondary data sources and key informant interviews (KIIs). Data was then analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were carried out to obtain qualitative data. This survey adopted stratified random sampling. The unit of analysis was the individual household. The target respondents of the closed/structured survey questionnaires were based on gender (either a female-headed household or male-headed household). The total sample size used in this study was 379 households. Findings from this study revealed that all respondents surveyed have witnessed a change in weather in the last 10 years. The study indicated that vulnerability to climate change is influenced by gender with elderly women being the most vulnerable in the area. The study revealed that participating in decision making and access to basic services were the most important in influencing the resilience of pastoralists.
A gendered analysis on the role and potential of goat production to improve income and food security in semi-arid areas of South Africa.
(2020) Tsvuura, Susan Maira.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Chimonyo, Michael.
Small scale goat farming has a potential to contribute to livelihoods particularly in semi-arid areas where rainfall is erratic and crop farming is too risky. The broad objective of the study was to conduct a gendered analysis on the role and potential of goat production to improve income and food security in semi-arid areas of South Africa. The study used focus group discussions, key informant interviews and a questionnaire survey of 241 households for data collection. Descriptive statistics, general linear models, Chi-square tests and the Tobit regression model were used for data analyses. Male-headed households were mostly young, married and educated whilst female-headed households largely belonged to the old aged, were single or widowed and had little or no formal education. Male-household heads generally owned goats. In female-headed households, both the head and elder sons owned goats. In male-headed households, the head made decisions on goat marketing and on use of goat income whilst in female-headed households, both the head and elder sons made decisions (p<0.01). Male-headed households had larger goat flock sizes (mean 26.78 goats per household) than female-headed households (mean 15.59 goats per household) (p<0.05), lower goat mortality rates and achieved higher goat reproduction rates (p<0.05) as they followed better health control. Their goat annual net gains were higher than those of female-headed households (p<0.05). The motivations of male and female-headed households for keeping goats were different, with female-headed households rearing primarily for cultural ceremonies and males for sales. Goat sales were generally low, with mean of 2.1 for male-headed households and even lower for female-headed households with mean of 1.0 (p<0.05) in 12 months. The determinants of goat commercialization were gender of household head, location, education level of household head, occupation of household head, total household income, number of goats a household owns, goat marketing price, goat losses through death from diseases and theft, and whether a household receives remittances. The main constraints to goat commercialisation were poor condition of goats and mortality, high illiteracy rates of women, cultural settings biased against women, which discouraged them from owning and selling goats, shortage of transport to take goats to the market, poor confidence in the newly set up auction system of marketing and limited access to information. The reason for the low goat sales could be due to farmers’ failure to build up suitable flock sizes (due to losses through poor nutrition, diseases, predation, and theft), and this made it more unlikely to sell goats. Goat numbers were also an indicator of wealth. The Chi-square statistic showed a significant relationship between food security and household socio-economic parameters such as education level of household head (p<0.05), gender of household head (p<0.05) and the total household income (p<0.01). The study found that in gendered analysis, goat production does not contribute significantly to the improved income and food security in semi-arid areas of South Africa. Goats did not emerge as one of the main determinants of food security as their contribution to household income was limited. This is because goat flock numbers for most households did not grow significantly due to poor nutrition, diseases, predation, and theft. Where goat flock sizes were low, households limited goat sales to maintain their flock sizes and only sold goats when there were household emergencies such as funerals and ill-health. The main determinants of household food security were education levels, gender, saving money, location with access to irrigation to sustain gardens, sale of goats in the previous 12 months and the total household income. Female-headed households were less food secure than male-headed households, partly because they did not have reliable employment to provide adequate and nutritious food for their households. The food security situation was lower for households with lower education levels, and those who received less household income. Strengthening the role of women in household decision-making process is best done by increasing literacy levels among females so that they become empowered to achieve gender equality and their abilities within the society. Household commercially oriented goat production is a prerequisite for the commercialization of goats, particularly in female-headed households. For a successful goat production, female farmers need to regard goat farming as a source of income and to be convinced that their standard of living can improve through goat farming. Hence, there is need to improve the capacity of rural women and strengthen their resource base to enable them to play better roles in goat production. Participation of women in goat ownership, production, marketing, as well as decision-making on their income is critical in achieving food security. Empowering women by promoting rural education can contribute to improved food security. Increasing goat flock numbers enable farmers to make more sales, which can improve household welfare. Therefore, extension workers need to assist farmers to manage and utilize goats to their full potential. This may be done by assisting goat farmers to improve goat nutrition, health, and management; thereby increasing production efficiency of goats.
The governance-institutions nexus in water management for climate change adaptation in smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe.
(2021) Mwadzingeni, Liboster.; Mafongoya, Paramu L.; Mugandani, Raymond.
Smallholder irrigation schemes (SISs) are crucial for improving food and income security in rural communities in a changing climate. However, despite huge investments and substantial development, most of the schemes have been performing below expectations. This study synthesizes governance-institutional nexus in water management from climate change adaptation in SISs, highlighting the linkage between scheme management and climate change. This study used qualitative and quantitative surveys to collect data from 317 scheme farmers in Exchange, Insukamini and Ruchanyu irrigation schemes of Midlands province, Zimbabwe. The overall objective of this study was to explore the governance-institutions nexus in water management for climate change adaptation in SISs. The specific objectives of the study were: (1) to assess livelihood vulnerability of households in SISs to climate change, (2) to assess the impacts of institutional and governance factors on the adaptive capacity of SISs, (3) to identify gendered perception on the prevalence and management of pests in SISs given climate variability and change, and (4) to assess the water footprint and nutrient content for the crops grown in the schemes. To achieve these objectives, different studies were conducted. In the first component of the study, the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and the Livelihood Vulnerability Index—Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (LVI-IPCC) was used to compare vulnerability to climate change in the Exchange, Insukamini, and Ruchanyu SISs in the Midlands Province of Zimbabwe. Results show higher exposure and sensitivity to climate change in the Insukamini irrigation scheme despite the higher adaptive capacity. Both LVI and LVI-IPCC show that households in Insukamini irrigation scheme are more vulnerable to climate change than in Exchange and Ruchanyu irrigation schemes, attributed to water insecurity, poor social networks, and droughts. The study recommends that development and investment in Insukamini and Ruchanyu should prioritize improving social networks while Exchange should primarily focus on improving livelihood strategies. Vulnerability analysis using LVI-IPCC is crucial to better understand the vulnerability of smallholder irrigation schemes farmers to climate change. For instance, it can be used to explore the contribution of socio-economic, institutional and governance factors to the vulnerability of the SIS communities. This will contribute to improved water management for climate change adaptation. This chapter reveals factors that can be considered to increase the resilience SISs in a more variable climate. In the second component of the study, socio-demographic, governance and institutional factors that influence adaptive capacity in Exchange, Insukamini and Ruchanyu irrigation schemes were explored. Questionnaire-based interviews, group discussions and key informant interviews were used for data collection. Adaptive capacity calculated using the livelihood vulnerability model was used as the dependent variable. Ordinary least square regression was used to assess socio-demographic, institutional and governance factors influencing adaptive capacity in the smallholder irrigation schemes. We accept the hypothesis that stronger institutions positively influence the adaptive capacity of smallholder irrigation systems. The study reveals that adaptive capacity was significantly (P ≤ 5%) influenced by a margin of 0.026 for age squared, 0.073 for gender, 0.087 for education, 0.137 for household size, -0.248 for satisfaction with irrigation committee, 0.356 for participation in irrigation water scheduling, and -0.235 for participation formulation of rules. This chapter reveals factors that can be considered to adaptation to climate change in SISs. In the third component of the study, Mann-Whitney U test was employed to assess perception on the prevalence of pests between male and female farmers. Findings from this study depict that the females perceived a higher prevalence of cutworms (Agrotis Ipsilon) (P ≤ 0.01), red spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) (P ≤ 0.01), maize grain weevils (Sitophilus Zeamais) (P ≤ 0.01), and termites (Isoptera) (P ≤ 0.01) than males, while men perceive a higher prevalence of fall armyworms (Spodoptera Frugiperda) (P ≤ 0.01), bollworms (Helicoverpa armigera) (P ≤ 0.01) and whiteflies (Aleyrodidae ) (P ≤ 0.1) than females. Perception of the prevalence of pests was based on farmers' experience and shapes how they manage pests. Utilisation of gendered perception on pest in this chapter enables institutions and governance systems to consider gendered perception on climate change adaptation. Meanwhile, understanding water footprint is crucial to advise farmers to grow water use efficiency crops. Lastly, water footprint approach was used to assess the water metrics and nutrient-water matrix of food crops grown in three SISs in Midlands Province, Zimbabwe. The nutritional matrix of food crops was calculated based on the study done in Exchange, Insukamini, and Ruchanyu Irrigation Schemes in Zimbabwe. Given that the average yield ranges from 1.04 t/ha for sugar beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) to 30.60 t/ha for cucumber (Cucumis Sativus), the water footprint ranges from 278.85 m3/t for cucumber to 4762.98m3/t for sugar beans. Maize (Zea Mays) and wheat (Triticum Aestivum) are energy and carbohydrates rich crops with lower water footprints. Sugar beans have a higher protein content and water footprint, okra have high zinc content and low water footprint, while wheat has higher iron content and low water footprints. Interventions should focus on improving water footprint and opt for crops with the higher nutrient value of key nutritional elements like protein, zinc, and iron to fight hidden hunger. Climate change adaptation in SISs needs understanding of water footprint and nutrient security of the scheme communities.
Identification of opportunities for organic beef production from Nguni cattle to enhance food security by communal farmers in KwaZulu-Natal South Africa.
(2015) Kunene-Ngubane, Phumelele Eleanor.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Chimonyo, Michael.
Communal farms are characterised by marginal lands which are suitable for external livestock farming. Communal farmers are in possession of adaptable indigenous cattle breeds and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) which facilitate the production of beef without the use of synthetic chemicals. As a result, these communal farming systems may be labelled ‘organic’ by default. In the developed countries, consumer demand for animal products is increasingly shifting towards products that are safe, nutritious, produced through acceptable methods and of good eating quality. Hence the demand for organic beef, which is sold at a premium, is increasing in these countries. Although communal farmers in South Africa are suitably placed to produce organic beef, the organic beef market is not well-developed and consumer demand for organic beef is not known. The objective of this study was to identify opportunities for organic beef production in providing household food security in communal areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The specific objectives were to: assess the potential for organic beef production by communal farming systems; investigate the possibility of organic beef production by South African communal farmers; determine factors affecting consumers’ perceptions about organic beef in South Africa; and assess consumers’ Willingness To Pay (WTP) a premium for organic beef. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and a survey of 300 consumers were employed to collect data from communal farmers and consumers in various retail outlets in KwaZulu-Natal. Although the literature review indicated a growing concern and controversy regarding the health, safety and environmental benefits of organic and conventional beef, globally, consumers perceive organic beef as healthier as and safer than conventional beef, hence are willing to pay premium prices of up to 25%. These positive perceptions are based on the fact that the production processes of organic beef eliminate the use of chemicals. The indigenous cattle breed, particularly the inherent Nguni, has a lower sero-prevalence for A. marginale and B. bigemina in both the cool-dry and hot-wet seasons; hence it does not require chemicals for the prevention of tick-borne diseases prevalent in South African communal farms. South African communal farmers value their production systems which they consider to be wholesome, results in mature and tasty meat with several domestic and medicinal benefits compared to conventional beef. As a result, its produce, such as organic beef, should fetch premium prices in the formal markets. Socio-behavioural factors relating to inferiority, exclusion and lack of external institutional support are the main reasons why communal farmers are not actively participating in the South African formal beef markets, hence the low off-take rates (5 – 10%) from communal farms. The findings revealed that communal farmers were willing to participate in the South African formal beef market as equal partners with differentiated products which should be sold at the right price. This indicates a potential for organic beef production by South African communal farmers which could support and sustain the organic beef niche market in South Africa. The findings on determinants of consumers’ perceptions about organic beef revealed that consumers perceive self-grown food, without the use of chemicals as ‘organic,’ and hence associate it with health and safety. Organic food is acceptable in South Africa since 60% of the consumers had prior experiences in purchasing and consuming organic food. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) yielded three components upon which South African consumers base their perceptions about organic beef: safety, health and environment. Safety control was the most important factor with 25.1% variations that determined consumer’s decision when purchasing organic beef. Health considerations are also important to the South African consumers regarding the purchasing of organic beef, with 21.5% variations. Information about organic beef and trust of origin were highly regarded by consumers as safety measures, whilst the absence of chemicals and appearance were considered as vital health factors. The findings on the effects of socio-economic characteristics and taste on consumers’ willingness to pay for organic beef indicated that the majority of consumers (76%) were willing to pay a premium for organic beef, with 52% willing to pay less than 25% premium. Taste and safety attributes were important favourable attributes of organic beef over conventional beef. Consumers value organic beef such that even those who did not consider it as safer than conventional beef were willing to pay a premium. Consumers in urban cities were most likely to be willing to pay a premium for organic beef. The study concludes that South African consumers, similar to those in developed countries, perceive organic beef as healthier, safer and environmentally friendlier than conventional beef. The demand for organic beef in South Africa is high since 76% of consumers were willing to pay a premium. As thus, organic beef production could be employed to ensure household food security on communal farms. The market for organic beef in South Africa is in the urban formal markets. The subjective safety, health and environmental attributes of organic beef have to be addressed in order to allow South African communal farmers to take advantage of the potential organic beef niche market. Civic engagement involving all stake holders in the South African formal beef markets is essential for the establishment and maintenance of a differentiated organic beef niche market which adheres to set standards in order to ensure trust amongst all stakeholders. Recommendations for future research include studies on sensory evaluation could be conducted to determine preferences between organic and conventional beef in South Africa. Further studies are required to determine production efficiency of communal farming systems with regards to organic beef production in order to inform policy and facilitate the establishment of organic beef production standards. Studies comparing the chemical composition between organic and conventional beef are also required.
Impact of cash cropping on smallholder farming households’ food security in Shamva District, Zimbabwe.
(2017) Rubhara, Theresa Tendai.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
Over 1.5 million Zimbabweans were food insecure in the 2015/2016 season, with the majority being in the rural areas. Land reform programmes have been implemented to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Smallholder farmers now constitute over 90% of farmers. There is a drive to commercialise small-scale agriculture by increasing the smallholder farmers’ involvement in cash crop production. However, despite those efforts, food insecurity remains high in the smallholder farming sector. As farmers shift towards cash crop production, an understanding of the implications of this shift on the household food security level is required. The objective of the study was to analyse factors determining cash crop production choices at the household level and the impact of such choices on household food security status. The research was conducted in Shamva district, Mashonaland Central Province of Zimbabwe. Data was collected in 2016 through a survey of 281 randomly selected households. Data was analysed using the SPSS and STATA. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and independent t tests for mean area under different crops were used for analysis of crop production patterns guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. The Tobit regression models were used to measure determinants of commercialisation and impact of cash cropping on food security in chapters four and five respectively. The independent t-test was used to test for significance in average monthly income and expenditure between male-headed and female-headed households. The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) was also used to model the determinants of household food expenditure. Maize and groundnuts were the main food crops grown in the area. About 95% of the sampled households grew maize in the 2015/2016 season and used about 61% of the total cultivated area. Tobacco covered 17% of the area and was the main cash crop. Male-headed household had more access to markets (p<0.1) and extension services (p<0.05) than female-headed households. Statistically significant differences between male-headed and female-headed (p<0.01) were observed in cash crops production with female-headed households planting less tobacco than male-headed households do. The average yield per hectare of maize (p<0.01) and tobacco (p<0.01) was significantly higher in A1 resettlement than communal farmers. The household commercialisation index, a ratio of marketed output to the value of crops produced captured the level of cash cropping. The average household commercialisation level was 0.45 implying that farmers sell less than half of the value of their produce. Household characteristics such as the age of household head (p<0.01) and gender of household head (p<0.05) influenced commercialisation. Furthermore, resource endowments such as labour (p<0.1) and number of cattle (p<0.05) also positively affected farmers’ decision to commercialise. Non-far income (p<0.05) was negatively associated with commercialisation. The target group for commercialisation interventions should be smallholder farmers with fewer sources of income as they are likely to be motivated to grow more cash generating crops. Descriptive statistics showed low levels of access to agricultural finance (6.76% of households had access to finance), albeit, its importance in improving production and commercialisation levels. Since communal land holding was negatively associated with commercialisation future land redistribution should continue to decongest smallholder farmers and provide them with support. Communal farmers with increased support are more likely to commercialise. Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) measured food security. The mean HFIAS was 1.89 implying a higher level of food security. Cash crop production had a significantly positive (p< 0.01) impact on food security. A unit increase in the proportion of cash crop resulted in an increase in food security by 4.3 units. This implies Cash crop production ensures that farmers can have more income that can be used for purchasing of food at the household level, thus improving their diet quality. Cash crop production only should not be regarded as a panacea to food security as quantity of maize harvested (p<0.05) had a direct positive impact on food security. Policies that target food crop production only as a means for ensuring food security maybe unsustainable in the end. Therefore, there is need for combining both cash and food crops. Other variables significantly positively influencing food security included non-farm income (p<0.05), access to markets (p<0.1) and access to draft power (p<0.05). However, household size (p<0.1) was negatively associated with food security. The main sources of farm income were cash crop sales, food crop sales and livestock sales, contributing, 64% of the annual household cash income. Food expenditure constituted the main expenditure category and accounted for over 60% of total expenditure. The variables household size (p<0.01), dependant ratio (p<0.05) and income (p<0.01) positively affected household food expenditure. The study revealed that improved cash crop production may be an option for improving food security as it provides an immediate source of farm income. There is need for further research to derive optimum combinations of cash and food crops in the crop mixture for smallholder farmers to achieve food security. Stakeholders including government and marketing firms should promote commercialisation by improving access to services such as finance and extension. Furthermore, opportunities for off-farm livelihoods options should be developed since non-farm income was also positively significantly associated with food expenditure and food security.
Impact of crop productivity and market participation on rural households’ food and nutrition security status: the case of Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces, South Africa.
(2022) Hlatshwayo, Simphiwe Innocentia.; Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon Cloapas.; Modi, Albert Thembinkosi.; Temitope, Olumuyiwa Ojo.; Mabhaudhi, Tafadzwanashe.
The agricultural sector has proven to be the backbone of improving rural households’ food security and livelihoods in developing countries. However, the sector faces numerous challenges, such as insufficient access to technology, institutional difficulties, inappropriate policies, poor infrastructure, and unsuccessful links to the markets, making it difficult for smallholder farmers to participate in the formal market sector. Smallholder farmers in South Africa are still trapped in low-productivity traditional technologies that have a negative impact on output and livelihoods. Low agricultural productivity and lack of market access threaten the efforts of alleviating poverty and improving food security. The study's main objective is to analyse the impact of crop productivity and market participation on rural households’ food and nutrition. The specific objectives were to assess the determinants and intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers; estimate the impact of market participation on the food and nutrition security status of the smallholder farmers; analyse the factors affecting crop productivity among smallholder farmers, and evaluate the effect of crop productivity on household food and nutrition security status in the study area. The study used secondary data, which was collected from a total of 1520 respondents who were selected through stratified random sampling. The study focused on two provinces (Mpumalanga and Limpopo) in South Africa, based on the predominance of smallholder farmers. While assessing the determinants and intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers, the results of the DH estimation model show that the gender of the household head, family member working on the farm, wealth index, and agricultural assistance, age of household head and family member with HIV were statistically significant factors influencing market participation. The result from the second hurdle showed that the perceived intensity of market participation was influenced by marital status, educational level of the household head, wealth index, access to agricultural assistance, household size, household age, and family member with HIV. The study also analysed the effect of market participation on the food security of smallholder farmers. The household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) results revealed that out of the total sample size, 85% of the households were food insecure while 15% were food secure. The gender of the household head, receiving social grants, wealth index, and having a family member with HIV significantly influenced farmers’ market participation. The results of the extended ordered probit regression model showed that household size, having a family member with HIV, agricultural assistance, educational level of household head, ownership of livestock, age of household head, gender of household head, and having access to social grants variables were statistically influencing the food insecurity situation of smallholder farmers. The Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) showed that in the overall sampled population, 57% of smallholder farmers had the highest dietary diversity, followed by medium dietary diversity (25%), and the lowest dietary diversity was 18%. The t-test results showed that farmers who participated in the market enjoyed higher HDDS than those who did not participate in the market. The Food Consumption Score (FCS) showed that in the overall population, the acceptable FCS was 54%, followed by a borderline food consumption score of 30%, and the poor food consumption score was the least at 16%. The gender of the household head, receiving social grants, and the wealth index significantly influenced farmers’ market participation. The results from Poisson endogenous treatment effect model showed that the nutrition status of smallholder farmers was statistically influenced by agricultural assistance, access to market information, household size, ownership of livestock, access to social grants, wealth index, and involvement in crop production variables. The result from the ordered logistic regression model showed that household size had a negative and significant impact on the food consumption score of smallholder farmers. Gender of household head, irrigation type, social grant, and amount harvested had a positive and significant effect on the food consumption score of smallholder farmers. The results from the Tobit regression model showed crop productivity of smallholder farmers was significantly influenced by the gender of the household head, irrigation system, a family member with HIV, involvement in crop production, access to agricultural assistance, and wealth index of smallholder farmers variables. Lastly, the study determined the impact of crop productivity on household food and nutrition security status in the study areas. The results from the CMP model showed that ownership of livestock, harvest, disability in the family, household size, and gender statistically influenced the food (in)security of smallholder farmers. The results also showed that social grants, agricultural assistance, harvest, and household size significantly impacted the nutrition status of smallholder farmers. The results from this study support the findings of many previous studies conducted in developing countries and show that more intervention is still needed. It is recommended that government, researchers, policy makers, and other stakeholders work together to close the existing gaps between research, policies, programmes, and extension services directed to smallholder farmers. This will help to improve crop productivity and market participation of smallholder farmers, which will, in turn, enhance their food and nutrition security.
Impact of crop productivity and market participation on rural households’ food and nutrition security status: the case of Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces, South Africa.
(2022) Hlatshwayo, Simphiwe Innocentia.; Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon Cloapas.; Ojo, Temitope Oluwaseun.; Modi, Albert Thembinkosi.; Mabhaudhi, Tafadzwanashe.;
The agricultural sector has proven to be the backbone of improving rural households’ food security and livelihoods in developing countries. However, the sector faces numerous challenges, such as insufficient access to technology, institutional difficulties, inappropriate policies, poor infrastructure, and unsuccessful links to the markets, making it difficult for smallholder farmers to participate in the formal market sector. Smallholder farmers in South Africa are still trapped in low-productivity traditional technologies that have a negative impact on output and livelihoods. Low agricultural productivity and lack of market access threaten the efforts of alleviating poverty and improving food security. The study's main objective is to analyse the impact of crop productivity and market participation on rural households’ food and nutrition. The specific objectives were to assess the determinants and intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers; estimate the impact of market participation on the food and nutrition security status of the smallholder farmers; analyse the factors affecting crop productivity among smallholder farmers, and evaluate the effect of crop productivity on household food and nutrition security status in the study area. The study used secondary data, which was collected from a total of 1520 respondents who were selected through stratified random sampling. The study focused on two provinces (Mpumalanga and Limpopo) in South Africa, based on the predominance of smallholder farmers. While assessing the determinants and intensity of market participation among smallholder farmers, the results of the DH estimation model show that the gender of the household head, family member working on the farm, wealth index, and agricultural assistance, age of household head and family member with HIV were statistically significant factors influencing market participation. The result from the second hurdle showed that the perceived intensity of market participation was influenced by marital status, educational level of the household head, wealth index, access to agricultural assistance, household size, household age, and family member with HIV. The study also analysed the effect of market participation on the food security of smallholder farmers. The household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) results revealed that out of the total sample size, 85% of the households were food insecure while 15% were food secure. The gender of the household head, receiving social grants, wealth index, and having a family member with HIV significantly influenced farmers’ market participation. The results of the extended ordered probit regression model showed that household size, having a family member with HIV, agricultural assistance, educational level of household head, ownership of livestock, age of household head, gender of household head, and having access to social grants variables were statistically influencing the food insecurity situation of smallholder farmers. The Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) showed that in the overall sampled population, 57% of smallholder farmers had the highest dietary diversity, followed by medium dietary diversity (25%), and the lowest dietary diversity was 18%. The t-test results showed that farmers who participated in the market enjoyed higher HDDS than those who did not participate in the market. The Food Consumption Score (FCS) showed that in the overall population, the acceptable FCS was 54%, followed by a borderline food consumption score of 30%, and the poor food consumption score was the least at 16%. The gender of the household head, receiving social grants, and the wealth index significantly influenced farmers’ market participation. The results from Poisson endogenous treatment effect model showed that the nutrition status of smallholder farmers was statistically influenced by agricultural assistance, access to market information, household size, ownership of livestock, access to social grants, wealth index, and involvement in crop production variables. The result from the ordered logistic regression model showed that household size had a negative and significant impact on the food consumption score of smallholder farmers. Gender of household head, irrigation type, social grant, and amount harvested had a positive and significant effect on the food consumption score of smallholder farmers. The results from the Tobit regression model showed crop productivity of smallholder farmers was significantly influenced by the gender of the household head, irrigation system, a family member with HIV, involvement in crop production, access to agricultural assistance, and wealth index of smallholder farmers variables. Lastly, the study determined the impact of crop productivity on household food and nutrition security status in the study areas. The results from the CMP model showed that ownership of livestock, harvest, disability in the family, household size, and gender statistically influenced the food (in)security of smallholder farmers. The results also showed that social grants, agricultural assistance, harvest, and household size significantly impacted the nutrition status of smallholder farmers. The results from this study support the findings of many previous studies conducted in developing countries and show that more intervention is still needed. It is recommended that government, researchers, policy makers, and other stakeholders work together to close the existing gaps between research, policies, programmes, and extension services directed to smallholder farmers. This will help to improve crop productivity and market participation of smallholder farmers, which will, in turn, enhance their food and nutrition security.

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