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School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences

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    Characterization of rainfall over the Limpopo province, South Africa, for the period 1990 to 2020.
    (2024) Moumakwe, Peter Lesiba.; Dube, Lawrence Thembokwakhe.
    The Limpopo Province is home to a large rural population which is highly dependent on rainfed agriculture. Although extensive research has been undertaken to understand rainfall variability over South Africa, a better understanding of the localized rainfall characteristics and variability remains crucial for decision-makers and the livelihoods of the local community. The study aims to investigate rainfall variability and trends over the Limpopo province, understand the distribution (both spatial and temporal) of seasonal rainfall characteristics, and also establish the relationship between seasonal rainfall characteristics with larger modes of climate variability (i.e. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and Southern Indian Ocean Dipole (SIOD)). High-resolution Climate Hazard Group Infrared Precipitation with Station Data (CHIRPS) 0.05° gridded data spanning the duration 1990-2020 was employed to analyze the spatial distribution of rainfall over the Limpopo province. In this study dry spells (pentads with < 5 mm rainfall), moderate (rainfall ranging from 10-30 mm per day) and heavy wet days (rainfall > 30 mm per day) were analyzed. Standardized Anomaly Index (SAI) was used to understand the relationship between rainfall characteristics and anomalies. The Mann-Kendall test was also used to determine the trends of seasonal rainfall characteristics over the province. The Pearson correlation was used to establish the association between seasonal rainfall characteristics (dry spells, moderate and heavy wet days) and large modes of variability (ENSO and SIOD). The results of this study show that seasonal rainfall exhibits high spatial and temporal variability over the study period. Throughout the extended summer season (October-March (ONDJFM)), dry spells migrate from the north of Vhembe and Capricorn to the northeast of Mopani, with their frequency and extent increasing from early summer (October-November) to late summer (February-March). The distribution of these rainfall characteristics follows that of mean annual rainfall. Of all periods, December-January (DJ) receives the highest frequency of moderate wet days with a larger spatial extend ranging from 6-13 days in the high-lying escarpment of Vhembe, west of Mopani, south-east of Capricorn, Waterberg, and Greater Sekhukhune. The highest heavy wet day frequency is also observed in the DJ period, over the high-lying escarpment of Vhembe, west of Mopani, south-east Capricorn and north of Greater Sekhukhune records heavy wet days ranging from 3-7 days. The results of the Mann-Kendall trend test revealed a statistically significant decreasing trend in dry spells during DJ and February-March (FM) over the entire Limpopo province. Statistically significant moderate wet day trends were observed during ON over north and east of Mopani, south-east of Capricorn, and west of Mopani district, whereas during the DJ periods, statistically significant increasing trends are recorded over the south-east of Vhembe and northwest of Mopani. During DJ, statistically significant increasing heavy wet day trends are observed over Vhembe, Greater Sekhukhune, and west of Waterberg. The relationship between seasonal rainfall characteristics and rainfall anomalies was observed. The results show that the inter-annual variability of seasonal rainfall characteristics does not always reflect in seasonal rainfall totals/anomalies. This shows that anomalies overlook the isolated impact of seasonal rainfall characteristics. The relationship between seasonal rainfall characteristics and large modes of variability was observed. A strong negative correlation with moderate wet days over the high-lying escarpment in the Vhembe district and south of the Mopani district. However, a complex relationship was observed between the inter-annual rainfall characteristics and large modes of variability. The results showed that not all La Nina years or positive phase SIOD phase equate to wet seasons. Furthermore, years with neutral ENSO and SIOD phases still exhibited above-average wet days.
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    Site and land use effects on some physical properties and the distribution of total carbon, aluminium, and iron within aggregates of some humic soils in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
    (2023) Mbanjwa, Vusumuzi Erick.; Muchaonyerwa, Pardon.; Hughes, Jeffrey Charles.
    Humic soils occur mainly on old land surfaces, with a warm, misty climate having native forests and grasslands as the predominant natural vegetation, in KwaZulu-Natal and along the coast of Pondoland and the eastern escarpment of Mpumalanga. The effects of site characteristics and response to replacement of native vegetation with sugarcane cultivation on these soils, remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of different site conditions, including native forest, grassland, and sugarcane production, on (i) general soil characteristics such as pH, clay mineralogy, and total Al, Fe, and C in bulk soils, (ii) bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), and moisture content at field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP), (iii) AS and size distribution, and (iv) the distribution of total Al, Fe, and C within different aggregates in humic soils. The study area encompasses different soil types developed on dolerite and sandstone, under various vegetation covers, and subjected to different land uses. Soil samples were collected at different depths to compare forest vs. grassland sites and forest vs. sugarcane sites. Results revealed differences in pH, organic carbon content (TOC), Al, Fe, clay, and silt content among sites, with sugarcane cultivation notably affecting BD and Ks. Interestingly, while TOC influences water retention characteristics to some extent, factors like texture, especially silt, play a more significant role. Soils with higher TOC exhibited better aggregation, resulting in lower BD and higher TP, thereby enhancing Ks, FC, and PWP. Exchangeable acidity and silt were identified as critical factors in aggregation, with Al and Fe concentrations increasing with sugarcane cultivation across all aggregates. The study emphasizes the importance of soil management practices to ensure sustainable agricultural production on these soils. Recommendations include lime application to reduce soil acidity and improve exchangeable base availability. Practices such as adding organic matter, minimizing tillage, and crop rotation are suggested to maintain or enhance TOC content, thereby promoting stable aggregates and preventing soil degradation. Generally, the findings highlight the complex interplay between land use, soil properties, and management practices in shaping the sustainability of agricultural systems on humic soils in South Africa. Iqoqa. Inhlabathi enomquba wamahlamvu omileyo etholakala ikakhulukazi ezindaweni ezindala, ezinesimo sezulu esishisayo, esinenkungu enamahlathi emvelo kanye nezithako ezinotshani, njengezitshalo zemvelo ezihamba phambili, KwaZulu-Natal nasogwini lwaseMampondweni kanye nendawo esempumalanga yeMpumalanga. Imiphumela yezimpawu zesizinda kanye nokusabela ekushintsheni kwezimila zomdabu kutshalwa umoba kule nhlabathi, ayikacaci. Lolu cwaningo luphenye imiphumela yezimo ezahlukene zezindawo, okuhlanganisa ihlathi lendabuko, imfunda yotshani, nokukhiqizwa komoba, (i) izimpawubunjalo ezijwayelekile zomhlabathi njenge-pH, ezamamineral asemhlabathini, kanye nengqikithi ye-Al, Fe, no-C emhlabathini omningi, (ii) kanye nesisindo esikhulu, ibulk density (BD), enobuzikamanzi obuphelele, itotal porosity (TP), izindlela zokuhambisa amanzi emhlabathini (Ks), nokuqukathwa komswakamo emasimini (FC) kanye nenani lamanzi elidingakalyo emhlabathini, ipermanent wilting point (PWP), (iii) i-AS nobungako bamaphesenti adingakalayo, kanye (iv) nokusabalalisa ingqikithi ye-Al, Fe, kanye no-C phakathi kwenhlanganisela ehlukene enhlabathini evundile. Indawo yocwaningo ihlanganisa izinhlobo zenhlabathi ezehlukene ezakhiwe ohlotsheni lwetshe nechoba, ngaphansi kwezitshalo ezahlukene ezimbozekile, ezisetshenziswa ngezindlela ezahlukene ezweni.. Amasampula omhlabathi aqoqwa ekujuleni okuhlukene ukuze kuqhathaniswe izizinda zehlathi kanye nezindawo ezitshalwe umoba. Imiphumela iveze umehluko ku-pH, okuqukethwe kwe-organic carbon (TOC), i-Al, i-Fe, ubumba, nokuqukethwe kodaka phakathi kwezindawo, nokutshalwa komoba okuthinta kakhulu i-BD ne-Ks. Kuyajabulisa ukuthi i-TOC iyakwazi ukulekelela ekugcinweni kwamanzi ngokwezinga elithile, izinto ezifana nobunjalo bento nomhlabathi ocoyisakele, kubaluleke kakhulu. Umhlabathi one-TOC ephakeme ubonise ukuhlanganisa okungcono, okubangele i-BD ephansi kanye ne-TP ephakeme, ngaleyo ndlela kuthuthukiswe i-Ks, FC, ne-PWP. Isimuncwane esishintshaniswayo kanye nenhlabathi ecoyisakele kuhlonzwe njengezinto ezibalulekile ekuhlanganisweni, lapho ukugxila kwe-Al ne-Fe kukhuphuka ngokutshalwa komoba kuzo zonke izilinganiso. Ucwaningo lugcizelela ukubaluleka kwezinqubo zokuphatha umhlabathi ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukukhiqizwa kwezolimo okusimeme kule nhlabathi. Iziphakamiso zifaka ukufaka umcako ukunciphisa ubumuncu bomhlaba kanye nokwenza ngcono ukutholakala kwesisekelo esishintshayo. Izenzo ezifana nokwengeza izinto eziphilayo, ukunciphisa ukulinywa komhlabathi, kanye nokushintshaniswa kwezitshalo kuphakanyiswa ukuthi kugcinwe noma kuthuthukiswe okuqukethwe kwe-TOC, ngaleyo ndlela kukhuthazwe ukuhlanganisa okuzinzile futhi kuvinjwe ukuwohloka kwenhlabathi. Ngokujwayelekile, imiphumela yocwaningo igqamisa ukusebenzisana okukhulu phakathi kokusetshenziswa komhlaba, izakhiwo zenhlabathi, kanye nezinqubo zokuphatha ekulolongeni ukusimama kwezinhlelo zezolimo enhlabathini enomswakama eNingizimu-Afrika.
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    Vegetative propagation of Corymbia henryi and its hybrids in South Africa through cuttings and mini-grafting techniques.
    (2019) Mkhize, Millicent Smisele.; Laing, Mark Delmege.
    Eucalyptus species are the most commonly planted hardwood species in South Africa, composing 42% of the total plantation area in the country but as the forestry planation areas in South Africa are not expanding, the only way to increase timber supply is to use the available land productively. This also increases the demand to efficiently propagate eucalyptus species, in an easy and economically viable way. This can be achieved through optimising vegetative propagation techniques which ensures mass multiplication of superior genotypes/phenotypes and the maintenance of individual characteristics in order to ensure that a plant is genetically identical to the original/donor plant. Spotted gum (Corymbia species) and their inter-specific hybrids have been identified as promising taxa for commercial forestry in South Africa due to their superior survival and growth across a broad range of edaphic and climatic conditions. The major benefits of these hybrids include superior growth characteristics, disease and insect resistance and frost tolerance, making them desirable for propagation. The hybrids of Corymbia torelliana and C. citriodora are some of the extensively used Corymbia hybrids since they combine frost tolerance (C. citriodora) and disease resistance (C. torelliana). The widely used vegetative propagation techniques include propagation through rooted cuttings and grafting. The aim of the study was to investigate the vegetative propagation of Corymbia henryi (C. henryi) hybrids through the rooting cuttings, and the grafting of C. henryi. The propagation of the hybrids through cuttings was carried out in three experiments, comparing cutting material collected from coppice stumps and ramets. The cuttings were collected from 14 C. henryi hybrid genotypes grown in Zululand. The cuttings were maintained in a rooting tunnel for four weeks before being placed in greenhouse conditions to acclimatize to the natural environment. The use of ascorbic acid (AA) (40 mg L-1) with Seradix® 2 (IBA 3g kg-1) yielded the highest rooting incidence, ranging from 37.5-55.5%, with the lowest rooting resulting from the application of propiconazole with Seradix®2 (IBA 3g kg-1) at >2%. The combination of AA with IBA has shown to be synergistic, since AA acts by protecting the rooting hormone from oxidation therefore allowing it to enhance tolerance of the plants to greenhouse conditions and alleviate stress. The cuttings selected from coppice had a higher rooting survival than those collected from hedge material. The genotype had an effect on the rooting success of cuttings, with the highest rooting percentage occurring with C. torelliana x C. citriodora subsp. variegata hybrids, with rooting ranging from 25-70%, while a C. torelliana x C. henryi hybrid had the least rooting success (%). The Corymbia species are considered difficult-to-root therefore the results have shown that these species can be propagated through rooting if the better rooting hybrid genotypes are selected. There is still a need to perform more trials to test the genotypes that have been found to root better in order to reach the commercial requirements of rooting rate of 70% and above. The propagation through grafting allows for the union of more than one genotype, whether belonging from the same species or different species and offers propagation of species which may be hard-to-root therefore cannot be produced through cuttings. The grafting experiment was carried out to optimize grafting techniques by comparing mini-grafting and conventional grafting techniques for Corymbia henryi. The rootstocks were grown and maintained at the ICFR nursery until time of grating. The scion material was collected from the Zululand region from C. henryi provenance mix. The grafting and mini-grafting was carried out in the grafting tunnel at the Institute for Commercial Forestry Research (ICFR) nursery, which had continuous mist for the duration of the experiments. The methods applied on the grafts were cleft and splice grafting. The evaluations made were based on the grafting method applied, comparing age of the grafts (mini- grafting and conventional grafting) and the effect of different treatments applied onto the grafts which included the control treatment, use of Parafilm® to tie the graft union, covering the grafts with polyethylene plastic (for one week) and use of an antitranspirant, Vapor Guard®. The control treatment, where grafts were tied with Parafilm® had the highest graft survival (33.3%), with the lowest graft survival on grafts covered with polyethylene plastic (%).Grafting onto four- month old seedlings(mini-grafting) had the highest survival at 55.6%, compared to grafting onto 10-month old seedlings (conventional grafting), with a survival of 22.2%. Mini-grafting has been tested over some species due to its ease of handling and is being evaluated for its potential in the propagation of Corymbia henryi. This type of grafting offers advantages of efficient management of plants that are grown in the nursery, allowing ease in irrigation, nutrition and pest disease control. The use of younger seedlings allows for grafting to be a commercially viable technique due the reduced time to grow the plant, flexible and pliable cambium layers of younger rootstocks and rapidness of grafting these younger seedlings. Mini-grafting was evaluated with the use of commercially available anti-transpirants and antioxidants, to assess effect of these treatments on graft success. The different ancillary treatments applied were the control, use of Parafilm® to tie the graft union, the use of anti-transpirants such as Nu-Film 17®, Vapor Gard® and Greenstim®, and the use of an antioxidant, ascorbic acid. Foliar application of ascorbic acid had the highest graft survival (60%) compared to the other treatments applied. The use of anti-transpirants in grafting of C. henryi was not successful therefore more research needs to be done on the commercially available anti-tranpirants in alleviating water stress in Eucalyptus species, as each crop may have different requirements for anti-transpirant application and doses may differ from one crop to another. Vegetative propagation of Corymbia henryi and its hybrids shows some potential for future use, but more research needs to be done to optimise these techniques to be able to have an impact on the commercial scale and in research outputs.